Day of Empire

1. Tolerance is the Indispensable Secret to World Dominance

For all their enormous differences, every single world hyperpower in history—every society that could even arguably be described as having achieved global hegemony—was, at least by the standards of its time, extraordinarily pluralistic and tolerant during its rise to preeminence.

Global preeminence requires diverse talent. To achieve world dominance, a society must be at the forefront of technological, military, and economic development. This necessitates attracting and motivating the world's best human capital, regardless of their origin. Historical hyperpowers achieved this by being more tolerant than their rivals.

Persia's cosmopolitan strength. The Achaemenid Persian Empire, the first hyperpower, actively recruited talented artisans, craftsmen, laborers, and warriors from across its vast domain. Cyrus the Great's religious tolerance and respect for local customs minimized resistance and harnessed diverse skills, building an empire that dwarfed its contemporaries.

Rome's inclusive ascent. Rome's expansion was fueled by its willingness to incorporate conquered peoples, offering them a path to power and privilege. Unlike its Greek predecessors, Rome allowed elites from provinces to rise to the highest offices, including emperor, fostering loyalty and integrating diverse populations into its formidable military and administration.

2. Hyperpower Decline Coincides with Intolerance and Xenophobia

Just as strikingly, the decline of empire has repeatedly coincided with intolerance, xenophobia, and calls for racial, religious, or ethnic “purity.”

Intolerance as a catalyst for collapse. While many factors contribute to imperial decline, a consistent pattern emerges: a shift towards intolerance often exacerbates internal divisions and weakens the empire's ability to govern. This can manifest as religious persecution, ethnic cleansing, or the rejection of foreign ideas and peoples.

Rome's self-inflicted wounds. After its golden age, Rome descended into religious persecution, particularly against pagans and "heretic" Christians, and ethnic bigotry against Germanic immigrants. This internal strife, coupled with policies of apartheid, fueled rebellions and facilitated barbarian invasions, ultimately leading to the Western Roman Empire's collapse.

Tang China's inward turn. The cosmopolitan Tang Dynasty, after the An Lushan Rebellion, became increasingly xenophobic. Blaming foreigners for its problems, China turned inward, closing off trade routes and persecuting foreign religions like Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Nestorian Christianity, which contributed to its eventual fragmentation.

3. Historical Tolerance Was Strategic, Not Modern Human Rights

By tolerance, I don't mean political or cultural equality. Rather, as I will use the term, tolerance simply means letting very different kinds of people live, work, and prosper in your society—even if only for instrumental or strategic reasons.

Pragmatism over principle. Historically, tolerance was often a calculated political strategy rather than an embrace of universal human rights. Rulers permitted diverse groups to coexist and flourish because it served the empire's interests, such as gaining legitimacy, minimizing rebellion, or acquiring valuable skills and resources.

Cyrus's shrewd benevolence. Cyrus the Great's legendary religious tolerance, for example, was a pragmatic move to win over conquered populations like the Babylonians and Jews. By honoring local deities and traditions, he secured their acquiescence and loyalty, reducing the likelihood of revolt and consolidating his vast empire.

Roman utility of diversity. The Romans, while often contemptuous of "barbarian" cultures, strategically recruited warriors and administrators from all backgrounds. Their tolerance was selective, extending to groups deemed useful, even if it didn't imply respect or full equality, demonstrating a clear instrumental motivation.

4. The "Glue" Problem: Unifying Diverse Peoples is a Core Challenge

Many of history's past hyperpowers, including Achaemenid Persia and the Great Mongol Empire, fell because they lacked an overarching political identity capable of holding their ethnically and religiously diverse subjects together.

Beyond military might. While military and economic power are crucial for a hyperpower's rise, long-term stability requires a unifying "glue"—a shared political identity or cultural affiliation that binds diverse subjects. Without this, empires remain vulnerable to fragmentation and internal dissent.

Persia's fatal flaw. Achaemenid Persia, despite its strategic tolerance, never forged a common political identity. Its subjects remained distinct, leading to constant separatist rebellions. When Alexander arrived, many elites simply switched allegiance, having never felt truly "Persian."

Mongol identity limits. Genghis Khan created a strong Mongol identity for his nomadic tribes, but it did not extend to the vast, civilized populations they conquered. The empire fractured as local khans adopted the cultures of their subjects, lacking a unifying bond across its diverse components.

5. Rome Mastered Assimilation, Forging a Broad Imperial Identity

More than any other ancient power, Rome represented a communis patria, a common fatherland, for its diverse subjects.

Cultural and political integration. Rome's genius lay in its ability to "Romanize" conquered peoples, offering an appealing cultural package and the enticement of citizenship. This fostered a sense of shared identity and loyalty, making subjects from Britannia to West Africa feel part of the Roman Empire.

Pathways to Roman identity:

• Citizenship: Extended to defeated elites and soldiers, granting rights and status.
• Cultural adoption: Conquered peoples embraced Roman customs, architecture, and values.
• Meritocracy: Provincial elites could rise to the highest offices, including emperor.

Enduring legacy. This inclusive approach, exemplified by Emperor Claudius's acceptance of Gauls who "no longer wore trousers," allowed Rome to maintain stability and expand for centuries. It created a powerful "glue" that transcended ethnic and geographic divides, unlike many other ancient empires.

6. "Barbarian" Empires Leveraged Diversity but Lacked Deep Unity

The Persians incorporated within their realm unprecedentedly large numbers of diverse peoples. This they accomplished because Cyrus and Darius had the shrewdness neither to try to Persianize their subjects nor to suppress their local religions, languages, social networks, and aspirations.

Pragmatic diversity, limited cohesion. Empires like Achaemenid Persia and the Great Mongol Empire were masters of strategic tolerance, integrating diverse talents and technologies from conquered lands. However, their tolerance often stopped short of fostering a shared identity beyond the core ruling group.

Mongol cosmopolitanism. The Mongols, despite their ruthlessness, were remarkably open to different cultures and religions, recruiting skilled individuals from across their vast empire. Yet, their "People of the Felt Walls" identity never resonated with the sedentary populations of China or Persia, leading to eventual fragmentation.

Tang's universal ambition. The early Tang emperors aimed for a "universal empire" where Chinese and "barbarians" were nominally equal, leveraging foreign military and administrative talent. However, they did not impose a "Han" identity, leaving distinct communities intact, which ultimately contributed to internal strife and the empire's decline.

7. The Dutch Republic: Economic Power Through Immigrant Tolerance

The Dutch Republic became a magnet for streams of religious refugees from all over Europe—Protestants from the south Netherlands, Huguenots from France, German Lutherans, Sephardic Jews from Spain and Portugal, Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe, and Quakers and Pilgrims from England.

A new model of global dominance. The tiny Dutch Republic, rising from humble beginnings, achieved world economic preeminence in the 17th century not through territorial conquest, but by becoming a haven for persecuted European minorities. Its founding charter, the 1579 Union of Utrecht, enshrined religious freedom.

Immigrant-fueled economic explosion:

• Sephardic Jews: Fleeing Spanish Inquisition, brought capital, trade networks, and expertise in industries like diamond trade, sugar refining, and finance, establishing the Amsterdam Stock Exchange.
• Protestant refugees: Fleeing Hapsburg persecution, brought advanced textile manufacturing techniques, transforming Holland into Europe's leader in textile finishing.

Commercial supremacy. This influx of human and financial capital fueled an unprecedented economic boom, allowing the Dutch to dominate global trade, shipping, and finance. Their naval power secured lucrative commercial monopolies, demonstrating a new, less militaristic path to world dominance.

8. The British Empire: Domestic Tolerance, Colonial Racism

But once it achieved global dominance, Britain found itself in a profoundly schizophrenic position. At home, Britain had triumphantly embraced the values of pluralism and tolerance. At the same time, in India, Rhodesia, Jamaica, and almost all its overseas domains, British governors ruled as Occidental despots, who presumed white, Christian superiority and openly practiced ethnic and racial discrimination.

Post-Enlightenment paradox. Great Britain's rise to global dominance after 1688 was fueled by a dramatic shift towards domestic tolerance, attracting Jews, Huguenots, and Scots who contributed immensely to its financial and industrial revolutions. However, this internal tolerance did not extend to its non-white colonial subjects.

Strategic recruitment, racial hierarchy:

• Scots: Once scorned, became aggressive empire builders, filling military and administrative roles across the empire.
• Jews & Huguenots: Provided crucial financial capital and industrial skills, transforming London into a global financial center.
• Colonial subjects: While strategically recruited into armies (e.g., Indian sepoys) and civil service, they faced systemic racial discrimination and were denied full political rights.

The "White Man's Burden." British imperial rule was justified by notions of white, Christian superiority, leading to policies of segregation and cultural imposition. This inherent contradiction between Enlightenment ideals at home and racial bigotry abroad ultimately undermined the empire's stability and fueled anti-colonial movements.

9. America's Unique Ascent: A Nation of Immigrants and Democracy

From the beginning, immigration has been the fuel of American wealth and innovation, providing the United States with a continuing human-capital edge that has proven equally decisive in the industrial, atomic, and computer ages.

Revolutionary religious freedom. The United States, unlike its European predecessors, was founded on the principle of no national church, enshrined in the First Amendment. This radical commitment to religious pluralism, inherited and expanded from Dutch and British models, made America a unique haven for diverse faiths.

Immigration as a core strength:

• Skilled European labor: Post-Revolution, America actively recruited skilled artisans and industrial workers from Europe, despite European anti-emigration laws, fueling its industrial revolution.
• Mass migration: Millions of Europeans built America's infrastructure, populated its interior, and filled its factories, making continental expansion and industrial leadership possible.
• Scientific brain drain: In the 20th century, refugee scientists fleeing Nazi intolerance, many of them Jewish, were instrumental in developing the atomic bomb and establishing America's scientific dominance.

Post-WWII hyperpower. America's unparalleled economic and military strength after World War II, and its subsequent lead in the computer age, were direct results of its continuous ability to attract and integrate global talent, making it the first immigrant nation to achieve hyperpower status.

10. Intolerant Regimes: Mobilizing Power, Destined for Self-Destruction

No society based on racial purity, ethnic cleansing, or religious zealotry has ever become world dominant.

The deceptive potency of hate. Regimes like Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan demonstrated that extreme intolerance, fueled by militant nationalism and racial hatred, can be incredibly effective at mobilizing a population and achieving rapid military expansion. Hitler's promise of an "Aryan" master race and Japan's "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" galvanized their nations.

Self-defeating policies:

• Nazi Germany: Prioritized racial extermination over military necessity, diverting crucial resources (trains, manpower) to the Holocaust. Its anti-Slavic policies alienated potential allies in Eastern Europe, strengthening Soviet resistance.
• Imperial Japan: Brutalized and exploited conquered populations in Southeast Asia, leading to widespread resistance and sabotage. Its racial arrogance prevented it from leveraging local support, unlike its more tolerant approach in Taiwan.

Inherent limits of intolerance. While capable of immense destruction and short-term gains, ideologies of racial supremacy and ethnic cleansing inherently prevent the recruitment of valuable human capital and the cultivation of loyalty from conquered peoples. This ultimately limits their global reach and leads to their downfall.

11. Modern Challengers: China, EU, and India Pursue New Toleration Models

To achieve not regional but world dominance, a society must attract, command the loyalty of, and motivate the world's most valuable human capital.

China's internal cohesion. China's historical "internal tolerance" has forged a unified "Han" identity among 1.3 billion people from diverse backgrounds, a feat of integration unmatched globally. However, its current authoritarianism, corruption, and non-immigrant status limit its ability to attract top global talent.

EU's "post-imperial" expansion. The European Union has achieved unprecedented unity and expansion through strategic tolerance, attracting nations via economic incentives rather than military force. It champions human rights and diversity internally, but struggles with integrating non-European immigrants, particularly Muslims, and attracting global high-tech talent.

India's democratic diversity. India, the world's largest democracy, is a triumph of tolerance, balancing extraordinary ethnic and religious diversity. Its booming tech sector and young population offer immense potential. However, persistent poverty, corruption, and Hindu nationalism pose significant challenges to its global appeal and internal stability.

12. America's 21st Century Dilemma: The Democratic Hyperpower's "Glue" Problem

Without some kind of “glue,” America has no means of overcoming the hostile, disintegrative forces that quickly tore apart Achaemenid Persia, the Great Mongol Empire, Tang China, and every other hyperpower in history that was unable to forge a common political identity that bound the central power with the peoples it dominated.

The democratic paradox. As the first democratic hyperpower and a nation of immigrants, the United States cannot employ traditional imperial strategies like annexation or forced subjecthood. Its democratic ideals prevent it from making foreign populations its citizens, creating a unique "glue" problem with the billions it influences globally.

Rampant anti-Americanism. Despite its cultural appeal, America's global dominance, particularly its interventionist policies, generates widespread resentment. Many perceive the US as arrogant and exploitative, feeling dominated without any sense of connection or allegiance, unlike Rome's ability to "Romanize" its subjects.

Rethinking global engagement:

• Immigration: A relatively open, merit-based immigration policy remains crucial for attracting global talent and fostering goodwill, countering xenophobic backlashes.
• Multinationals: US corporations operating abroad can create "glue" by offering prestigious jobs and a stake in American prosperity to local elites.
• Multilateralism: Leading on global problems like climate change and disease through international cooperation can build solidarity and advance US interests without empire-building.

America's future as a hyperpower depends on rediscovering its historical path of strategic tolerance and acting as an exemplar of opportunity and moral force, rather than a military overlord.

Last updated: February 19, 2026