Empires and Barbarians

1. Rethinking Migration: Beyond Simplistic Narratives

The way forward, this study will argue, is not to reject migration, sometimes even of quite large groups of people, but to analyse its varying patterns in the context of all the transformations then unfolding in barbarian Europe.

Challenging old views. Traditional accounts of Europe's first millennium often relied on the "invasion hypothesis," portraying barbarian migrations as monolithic, culturally homogeneous "peoples" displacing existing populations. This simplistic view, fueled by 19th-century nationalism and later exploited by ideologies like Nazism, has been largely discredited by modern scholarship. The book argues against both this outdated model and the equally extreme modern reaction that dismisses migration's significance entirely.

Nuanced understanding. Instead of a binary choice between "mass invasion" and "no migration," a more sophisticated approach recognizes migration as a complex phenomenon with diverse forms and motivations. It emphasizes that migration and internal societal transformations are not competing explanations but deeply intertwined aspects of historical change. The goal is to understand how and why people moved, and the varied impacts of these movements.

Identity is fluid. A key shift in understanding comes from recognizing that group identities are not fixed or primordial but can be fluid, situational, and even strategically adopted. This means that archaeological "cultures" do not necessarily equate to distinct "peoples," and changes in material culture can reflect assimilation, trade, or internal development, not just population replacement. However, this fluidity does not negate the existence of strong group allegiances or the significant demographic impact of certain migrations.

2. Rome's Influence: The Engine of Barbarian Transformation

Both the new wealth, and the struggles to control its flows and to limit Roman aggression, then, produced the more stratified social structures upon which the new political entities could come into existence.

Unequal development. At the dawn of the first millennium, Europe was a three-speed continent: the highly developed Roman Mediterranean, a less developed Germanic Europe, and a largely subsistence-level Eastern Europe. Rome's expansion to the Rhine and Danube frontiers created an "inner periphery" of client states, which became significantly wealthier and more complex than the "outer periphery" further east. This wealth disparity was a primary driver of change.

Economic magnetism. The Roman frontier acted as a powerful economic magnet, drawing in resources and labor from barbarian lands.

• Demand for goods: Roman armies created a huge market for agricultural products, timber, and raw materials.
• Trade networks: Amber, slaves, and iron flowed into the Empire, bringing silver and luxury goods back.
• Manpower: Barbarians served as auxiliary soldiers and were captured as slaves.
  This influx of wealth stimulated agricultural intensification and economic diversification in Germanic societies.

Political restructuring. The new wealth fueled internal power struggles within barbarian societies, leading to the rise of military kings supported by permanent retinues. These leaders used their enhanced power to:

• Control trade routes and extract tolls.
• Enforce military service and labor dues.
• Consolidate smaller units into larger, more stable confederations (e.g., Alamanni, Tervingi).
  Roman diplomacy, through subsidies and military interventions, further shaped these emerging political structures, often promoting compliant leaders while suppressing overly ambitious ones.

3. The Hunnic Catalyst: Mass Migration and Frontier Collapse

Although the Huns certainly started the revolution north of the Black Sea which manifested itself in the arrival of the Goths on the Danube in 376, they did not themselves come so far west in large numbers at that point.

Nomadic shockwave. The Huns, nomadic pastoralists from the Eurasian Steppe, initiated a cascade of migrations. Their westward movement, driven by a desire to access Roman wealth through raiding and tribute, was not a random wander but a calculated expansion. Initially, small warbands probed the fringes, but success led to larger, more organized groups establishing dominance on the Great Hungarian Plain by the early 5th century.

Gothic flight. The Hunnic advance destabilized the existing Germanic client states north of the Black Sea, particularly the Goths. In 376, large, mixed groups of Goths (Tervingi and Greuthungi), numbering tens of thousands, sought asylum within the Roman Empire. This was a politically motivated migration, driven by fear of Hunnic subjugation, but also by the perceived economic opportunities of Roman territory.

Western turmoil. A generation later, the Huns' consolidation on the Middle Danube triggered a second wave of migrations.

• Radagaisus' Goths invaded Italy (405/6).
• Vandals, Alans, and Sueves crossed the Rhine into Gaul (406).
• Burgundians moved to the Rhine frontier.
  These groups, many with established traditions of mobility, chose to enter the Empire rather than face Hunnic domination, leading to widespread destruction and the loss of critical Roman provinces.

4. New Identities Forged: Survival in a Violent World

The hostility of Roman state power, then, forced those who wished to preserve their independence to renegotiate their original group identities so as to create a larger and more cohesive force that stood some chance of survival on Roman soil.

Fluid but resilient identities. The "Völkerwanderung" groups were not ancient, unchanging "peoples" but dynamic, often improvised, political alliances. The Visigoths, Vandal-Alan coalition, and Ostrogoths were forged on the move, incorporating diverse elements and adapting their identities in response to external pressures. This process involved both shedding members and recruiting new ones, including lower-status warriors and slaves.

Violence as a unifier. The constant threat and direct military action from the Roman state were crucial in forcing these disparate groups to coalesce into larger, more cohesive entities.

• Visigoths: The Tervingi and Greuthungi, initially separate, united under Alaric's leadership after repeated clashes with Roman armies.
• Vandal-Alans: Roman and Visigothic counterattacks in Spain forced the two Vandal groups and the Alans to form a tighter, more unified command.
  This consolidation was essential for survival, as smaller groups were systematically destroyed or absorbed.

Repeat migrations. Many of these groups engaged in multiple, "stop-start" migrations, driven by a mix of political necessity and economic ambition. These movements were strategic, aimed at finding secure territories and favorable diplomatic terms within the collapsing Roman system. The long distances covered and the repeated conflicts highlight the immense trauma and dislocation experienced by these migrating populations.

5. Anglo-Saxons and Franks: A New Kind of Elite Takeover

The fact that, despite the economic costs of doing so, the countryside was entirely reordered in the fifth century strongly suggests that the number of Anglo-Saxon followers to be accommodated in the landscape was too great for them simply to replace the existing Roman landowning class on a one-for-one basis.

Predatory flows. Anglo-Saxon and Frankish expansions into Britain and northern Gaul, respectively, were distinct from the Hun-driven migrations. They were predatory, economically motivated flows, exploiting the power vacuum left by the Roman state's collapse. These migrations were not single events but extended processes, often starting with raiding and mercenary service before escalating to land annexation.

Socioeconomic revolution. Unlike the Norman Conquest, which largely replaced one elite with another while preserving existing manorial structures, Anglo-Saxon and Frankish takeovers fundamentally reshaped the rural economy.

• Britain: The Roman villa system, with its large estates, was dismantled and replaced by smaller, Anglo-Saxon farming units, despite the economic costs.
• Northern Gaul: Similar breakdown of Roman estate structures and the emergence of a new social order with a broader, less entrenched elite.
  This suggests that the incoming elites were too numerous to simply slot into the existing Roman landowning class, necessitating a complete reordering of land tenure and social hierarchy.

Cultural transformation. These migrations led to profound cultural shifts.

• Language: Anglo-Saxon became the dominant language in lowland Britain, with minimal Celtic influence, indicating a substantial presence of Germanic-speaking women and families.
• Social structure: Both regions adopted a tripartite social division (free, semi-free, slave) characteristic of Germanic societies, replacing the Roman system.
• Burial rites: The widespread adoption of furnished inhumation, initially a high-status practice, spread through emulation and reflected the new social order.
  The intensity of these changes, particularly linguistic, points to a significant demographic impact beyond mere elite replacement, even if the immigrants remained a minority.

6. The Slavic Explosion: Reshaping Eastern Europe

The creation of an almost entirely Slavic Europe from the Elbe to the Volga does seem, therefore, to call for a large element of population absorption.

Emergence from obscurity. Slavs, largely unmentioned in Roman sources, burst onto the European scene around 500 AD, initially in the sub-Carpathian region. Their expansion, spanning centuries, transformed vast swathes of Central and Eastern Europe, replacing Germanic and Baltic linguistic dominance. This was a complex process involving diverse migration units and varied interactions with indigenous populations.

Varied migration patterns. Slavic expansion took multiple forms:

• Wave of advance: Small, family-sized Korchak communities spread slowly through less-contested upland areas of Central Europe.
• Larger tribal movements: More organized groups, numbering thousands, moved into the Balkans, often as subjects or allies of the Avar Empire.
• Contested colonization: In regions like European Russia, larger, fortified settlements suggest more aggressive, organized movements into hostile territory.
  These patterns reflect a mix of population growth, economic opportunity, and political pressures, including the desire to escape Avar domination.

Demographic and cultural impact. Slavicization involved both significant migration and the absorption of existing populations.

• Population shifts: Germanic culture collapse left some areas depopulated or with thinned-out populations, facilitating Slavic settlement.
• Cultural dominance: While some Slavic groups were open to assimilating outsiders, the eventual outcome was a monolithic Slavic cultural and linguistic landscape, indicating a powerful imposition of new norms.
  The scale of this transformation, from the Elbe to the Volga, qualifies as a mass migration, fundamentally reshaping the human geography of Europe.

7. Viking Diasporas: Maritime Power and Economic Predation

The whole Scandinavian diaspora of the ninth and tenth centuries must be seen as a consequence of the emporia network of the seventh and eighth.

Naval revolution. The Viking Age, from the late 8th to the early 11th century, was enabled by a revolutionary development in Scandinavian naval technology: the ocean-going sailing ship. This allowed unprecedented access to distant lands for trade, raiding, and settlement, effectively shrinking Europe for Scandinavians.

Economic drivers. The diaspora was primarily driven by economic opportunities:

• Western Europe: Raiding for loot, slaves, and ransom, followed by settlement in fertile lands (Danelaw, Normandy) or strategic trading enclaves (Dublin).
• Eastern Europe: Trade in furs, slaves, amber, and wax along Russian river systems, connecting to wealthy Islamic and Byzantine markets.
  These activities generated immense wealth, which flowed back to Scandinavia, fueling internal political competition.

Diverse migration units. Viking migration varied by context:

• Small warbands: Initial raids and early settlements in the Scottish isles.
• Great Armies: Large coalitions (5,000-10,000 warriors) for conquering Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and continental territories.
• Aristocrat-led colonization: Wealthy individuals and their retinues settling Iceland and Greenland.
• Merchant adventurers: Small groups establishing trading posts in Russia.
  While predominantly male, DNA evidence suggests women from both Scandinavia and the British Isles accompanied settlers, particularly in later colonization waves.

8. The Rise of New States: Power from Periphery to Core

The new states of northern and eastern Europe present us, then, with something of a paradox. Capable of highly impressive acts of government and of building power structures over huge geographical areas, they were at the same time fragile.

New political landscape. By 1000 AD, new, powerful states emerged across Central and Eastern Europe: Great Moravia, Bohemia, Poland, Kievan Rus, and Denmark. These entities, far larger and more capable than earlier barbarian polities, marked a decisive shift from the fragmented societies of the Roman period. They built castles, maintained large professional armies, and adopted Christian statecraft.

Dynastic consolidation. State formation was driven by a violent process of dynastic self-assertion.

• Bohemia, Poland, Moravia: Ruling lines (Premyslids, Piasts, Mojmirids) systematically eliminated rival local leaders, consolidating control over core territories.
• Kievan Rus: The Rurikids, initially merchant princes, suppressed independent trading operations to establish a centralized state.
• Denmark: The Jelling dynasty re-established a unified monarchy after a period of Viking-era fragmentation.
  This process created core territories with intensive dynastic control, surrounded by more fluid peripheral zones.

Economic foundations. These new states were built on profound economic restructuring:

• Agricultural expansion: Extensive forest clearance and adoption of more productive farming techniques (e.g., rye cultivation, three-field rotation) dramatically increased food surpluses and population density.
• Trade control: Dynasties actively managed and profited from international trade networks in furs and slaves, extracting tolls and participating directly in commerce.
• Service villages: Core territories were reorganized with unfree "service villages" specializing in royal needs, reflecting a shift towards a more controlled, non-market economy.
  This unprecedented accumulation of wealth provided the resources for retinues, fortifications, and the trappings of royal power.

9. Imperial Interactions: Fueling State Formation

It was these interactions, not acts of migration, that were ultimately responsible for generating the new social, economic and political structures which brought former barbarian Europe much more to resemble its imperial counterpart by the end of the millennium.

External catalysts. The rise of new states in Central and Eastern Europe was profoundly shaped by their interactions with powerful imperial neighbors: the Carolingian/Ottonian Empire in the west, the Byzantine Empire in the south, and the Islamic Caliphate in the east. These interactions, far more than internal developments alone, provided the impetus for rapid state formation.

Predation and resistance. Imperial expansion, driven by the need to reward internal elites, exerted immense pressure on neighboring Slavic societies.

• Negative benefit: Imperial aggression (e.g., Ottonian exploitation of Elbe Slavs) forced smaller polities to unite for survival, providing ideological cement for new dynasties.
• Positive benefit: Raiding richer imperial lands provided crucial wealth for nascent dynasts to fund retinues and consolidate power.
  This dynamic interaction, a "Newton's third law of empires," spurred political consolidation and militarization among barbarian groups.

Cultural and technological transfer. Beyond direct conflict, imperial contact facilitated the transfer of transformative ideas and technologies:

• Military technology: Access to advanced arms and armor (e.g., mailed knights) from the Frankish Empire significantly enhanced the power of Slavic rulers.
• Christianity: Conversion offered ideological legitimacy, a literate administrative class, and new revenue streams (tithes), while allowing rulers to suppress pre-existing, politically fragmented pagan cults.
• Administrative models: Concepts like service villages and centralized control, though adapted, drew inspiration from imperial administrative practices.
  These multifaceted interactions accelerated the development of Slavic societies, enabling them to build states on an unprecedented scale.

10. The End of an Era: Development Outpaces Migration

Once social elites could access wealth without the extra insecurity of relocation, they became much less likely to resort to that strategy.

Reduced inequalities. By the end of the first millennium, the vast disparities in development that characterized Europe at the birth of Christ had significantly narrowed. The new trade networks, agricultural expansion, and state-building processes meant that elites in Central and Eastern Europe could access substantial wealth and power within their existing territories. This fundamentally altered the calculus for large-scale, predatory migration.

Rooted populations. Increased agricultural productivity and the establishment of permanent state structures (castles, administrative centers) rooted populations more deeply in specific localities. Both elites and peasants had more to lose by abandoning their lands, making migration a less attractive and less necessary strategy for advancement or survival. The Moravian resistance to the Magyars, unlike earlier responses to Huns and Avars, exemplifies this new rootedness.

New forms of migration. While large-scale predatory migrations diminished, migration itself did not end. Instead, it evolved into new forms characteristic of the medieval period:

• Knight-based elite transfers: Smaller groups of armed elites seizing control, like the Norman Conquest.
• Peasant colonization: Lords actively recruited peasants with attractive terms to settle and develop new agricultural lands, particularly in Eastern Europe.
  These later forms of migration were appropriate to a Europe with more established states, higher agricultural output, and a greater demand for labor, marking a new chapter in the continent's demographic history.

Last updated: February 27, 2026