What Is Property?

1. Property, as legally defined, is inherently theft and exploitation.

Proudhon most famously declared that “property is theft”.

Defining property. Property, as understood by Roman law and modern codes, grants the proprietor an absolute right to use and abuse a thing—jus utendi et abutendi. This definition implies a power to extract value without personal labor, essentially demanding "something for nothing." This "right of increase" manifests as farm-rent, house-rent, interest, or profit, all of which Proudhon argues are forms of extortion.

The proprietor's role. A proprietor, by virtue of this right, reaps without sowing, gleans without tilling, and consumes without producing. This is fundamentally different from legitimate possession, which is tied to actual use and labor. The proprietor's claim is based on a nominal, metaphysical occupancy, allowing them to levy a tax on others' use of what they themselves did not create or improve.

A parasitic existence. Proudhon asserts that the proprietor, in receiving products in exchange for nothing, is either a parasite or a thief. This system allows for production without labor, which is akin to creation from nothing, and is therefore an illusion. The very essence of property, in this sense, is a power to produce without effort, which is inherently unjust.

2. Traditional justifications for property (occupation, labor, law) are self-contradictory.

Every argument which has been invented in behalf of property, WHATEVER IT MAY BE, always and of necessity leads to equality; that is, to the negation of property.

Occupation's fallacy. The right of first occupancy, or jus primi occupantis, is often cited as a basis for property. However, Proudhon argues that if everyone has an equal right to occupy, then the amount each person can legitimately possess must be proportional to the available resources and the number of occupants. As population changes, individual shares must adjust, making fixed, exclusive property impossible.

• Cicero's analogy of a theatre: one can occupy a seat, but not claim ownership of the entire theatre or prevent others from occupying available seats.
• Land, like air and water, is indispensable for life; therefore, its use must be common and regulated for the benefit of all, not monopolized by a few.

Labor's paradox. The theory that labor creates property is also flawed. While labor creates value in products, it does not confer ownership of the raw material itself. If a farmer improves land, he is entitled to the increased product, but not to the land itself, which is a gratuitous gift of nature.

• If labor were the sole basis of property, then a laborer would cease to be a proprietor as soon as they stopped working or received rent from another's labor.
• Collective labor, which is necessary for most production, creates collective property, not individual ownership.

Civil law's complicity. Civil law, instead of being an expression of natural justice, has historically sanctioned and perpetuated the abuses of property. It has transformed temporary possession into absolute property, creating rights where none naturally exist.

• Laws of inheritance, for example, allow property to pass down regardless of the heir's labor, contradicting the idea that property is based on work.
• Prescription, intended to settle disputes and protect possession, is twisted to legitimize long-standing usurpations, effectively punishing the absent or less powerful.

3. The "right of increase" (rent, interest, profit) is an economic impossibility and injustice.

The proprietor, producing neither by his own labor nor by his implement, and receiving products in exchange for nothing, is either a parasite or a thief.

Something for nothing. The core of property's injustice lies in the proprietor's claim to an "increase" (rent, interest, profit) without contributing labor. This increase is a dead loss to the occupant or borrower, as it represents value extracted without equivalent service or product from the proprietor.

• The proprietor's "service" of lending an implement (land, capital) is not comparable to a manufacturer selling a tool, as the proprietor retains the implement indefinitely while being paid for its use.
• This system means that products are bought only by products, yet the proprietor receives products for nothing, violating a fundamental economic maxim.

Self-defeating accumulation. The right of increase also oppresses the proprietor. If a proprietor occupies and enjoys their own property, they become their own debtor for the rent they deny themselves. Capital, by this logic, eats itself up if not constantly replenished by external production.

• This principle is recognized in business where capitalists subtract interest on their own capital when calculating profits.
• The more idlers (proprietors living off increase) there are, the less overall production, leading to a diminishing return for everyone, including the proprietors themselves.

The budget's burden. Government budgets, funded by taxes, also demonstrate this impossibility. When governments borrow, taxpayers pay interest, effectively increasing active capital without increasing productive capacity. This leads to an ever-increasing budget, a perpetual tax on future production, which ultimately falls on the laborers.

• The conversion of public funds (reducing interest rates) is a tacit acknowledgment that the right of increase is unsustainable and must be violated for public necessity.
• This constant need for increase means that property, by its very nature, is always seeking to expand its claims over finite resources, leading to inevitable conflict and collapse.

4. Property is mathematically unsustainable, leading to societal self-destruction.

Property is impossible, because wherever it exists Production costs more than it is worth.

Production deficit. Proudhon argues that property creates a fundamental imbalance where production costs more than it is worth. If a community of laborers must pay a portion of their product (e.g., 10%) as revenue to proprietors, then the laborers consume less than they produce.

• For example, if laborers produce 1 unit but consume only 0.9 units after paying rent, they lose 0.1 units of their labor's value.
• This deficit means that a portion of labor goes unpaid, and a portion of products remains inconsumable, leading to waste and depreciation of value.

The cycle of debt and ruin. This deficit forces laborers to borrow, often from the very proprietors who benefit from the increase. This creates a perpetual cycle of debt, interest accumulation, and eventual bankruptcy for the laborers.

• The proprietor, by withdrawing from labor to enjoy their income, further reduces overall production, exacerbating the deficit for the remaining laborers.
• This dynamic leads to the "exploitation of man by man," where the capitalist profits from the collective force of labor without fully compensating it.

Homicide by starvation. Property, through usury and the constant demand for increase, slowly starves the laborer. When wages are insufficient to repurchase products, products are made for a fraction of society (the rich), leading to idleness for the rest.

• This idleness, in turn, leads to poverty, crime, and death, as laborers are forced out of work by competition and the drive for profit.
• The introduction of machinery, intended to ease labor, becomes a tool for mass unemployment and further exploitation under the regime of property.

5. Inequality of talents, paradoxically, necessitates equality of fortunes for social balance.

Natural inequality the condition of equality of fortunes!... What a paradox!... I repeat my assertion, that no one may think I have blundered—inequality of powers is the sine qua non of equality of fortunes.

Talent as collective capital. While individuals possess varying degrees of talent and skill, these are largely products of society's accumulated knowledge and education. A physician's education, for instance, is a debt owed to society, not a personal asset justifying disproportionate reward.

• Society cultivates talent as an investment, and the individual is merely a guardian of this collective capital.
• The reward for talent should be the opportunity to pursue it exclusively, with society providing for the individual's reproductive consumption, not an inflated salary.

No common measure for talent and money. It is impossible to assign a monetary value to talent, as talent and money operate on different scales. The value of a product is determined by the time and expense of its creation, not the genius of its creator.

• Homer's "Iliad," while invaluable intrinsically, has an exchangeable value limited by what society is willing and able to pay, which must be balanced against the cost of its production.
• In a truly free exchange, the demand of the seller is balanced by the right of the buyer, leading to an equilibrium that disregards personal superiority.

Equality of wages. In a just society, all wages must be equal because society pays laborers in their own products. If one laborer receives more, another must receive less, creating an imbalance.

• The social task, when divided among all, becomes manageable, and natural inequalities in strength or speed are neutralized.
• The laborer who finishes their task quickly may rest or pursue personal interests, but cannot claim a larger share of social products.

6. Property is the fundamental cause of tyranny and political instability.

Property is incompatible with political and civil equality; then property is impossible.

Sovereignty of property. Under a regime of property, political power becomes proportional to wealth. Citizens with greater property effectively have more votes and influence, turning democracy into an oligarchy or aristocracy of wealth.

• This contradicts the principle of equality before the law and makes true political equality impossible.
• Historically, electoral rights have been tied to property ownership, creating a system where the wealthy dictate laws that protect their own interests.

Government as a proprietor. The government itself acts as a proprietor, levying taxes (farm-rent) on the nation. When the government incurs debt, it capitalizes, increasing its active capital without increasing productive capacity, leading to an ever-growing budget that burdens the people.

• This dynamic forces the government to continually violate property (e.g., through bond conversions or new taxes) to sustain itself, demonstrating property's inherent instability.
• The state, in its role as a "proprietor," becomes a source of oppression, rather than a protector of justice.

Despotism and caprice. Property, by its nature, engenders despotism—the government of caprice and pleasure. If proprietors are absolute masters of their domains, a government composed of proprietors can only lead to chaos and arbitrary rule, as each seeks to impose their will.

• The historical evolution of government, from absolute monarchy to constitutional systems, shows a gradual retreat from the sovereignty of man towards the sovereignty of law.
• This progression ultimately points towards a scientific government based on reason and objective laws, rather than the arbitrary will of rulers or majorities.

7. Communism, though aiming for equality, results in oppression and uniformity.

Communism is inequality, but not as property is. Property is the exploitation of the weak by the strong. Communism is the exploitation of the strong by the weak.

Tyranny of the collective. While communism seeks to abolish private property and establish equality, it does so by making the community the absolute proprietor of not only goods but also persons and wills. This leads to a tyrannical system where individual spontaneity, freedom of thought, and personal desires are suppressed.

• Labor becomes a human commandment, enforced rather than chosen, leading to passive obedience and moral torture.
• Private associations are prohibited, and individual talents are leveled, forcing mediocrity upon excellence.

Repellent to conscience. Communism's attempt to equalize labor and laziness, skill and stupidity, and even vice and virtue, is repellent to the conscience. While the strong may aid the weak out of generosity, they will not endure being compared or forced into an equal standing.

• This system, by suppressing individual initiative and the desire to excel, would ultimately lead to a desire to shirk, making it unsustainable.
• Historical examples like Plato's republic (which relied on slavery) or early Christian communities (which degenerated into monasteries) demonstrate the practical failures of systematic communism.

Property as its basis. Paradoxically, systematic communism is conceived under the direct influence of the proprietary prejudice. The community itself becomes the proprietor, exercising absolute control, which is the very principle Proudhon condemns in individual property.

• This highlights the need for a third way, a synthesis that avoids the pitfalls of both absolute private property and absolute collective property.
• The goal is to find a system that respects individual liberty and proportionality while ensuring equality of conditions.

8. True justice and social order are found in Liberty, a synthesis of communism and property.

This third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property, we will call LIBERTY.

The path to Liberty. Liberty is the synthesis that resolves the contradictions of communism (thesis) and property (antithesis). It embraces the positive aspects of both while rejecting their negative elements.

• Equality of conditions: Not equality of comfort, but equal means and opportunities for all to achieve their own well-being through labor.
• Law based on necessity: Laws derived from the knowledge of facts and the nature of things, rather than arbitrary wills, ensuring they never clash with independence.
• Individual independence: Respect for all wills within the limits of the law, allowing for the autonomy of private reason and the diversity of talents.
• Proportionality in sentiment: Acknowledging and rewarding merit, ambition, and glory in the sphere of intelligence and sentiment, without affecting material equality.

Anarchy as order. Liberty is synonymous with anarchy, meaning the absence of a master or sovereign, but not the absence of order. It signifies the rule of law (reason and necessity) over the rule of will (man over man).

• In a truly free society, government becomes a scientific function, where legislative power belongs to demonstrated truth, not to the opinions of majorities or the commands of rulers.
• The nation's role shifts from being a sovereign will to being the guardian and executive power of the law, ensuring its application.

Social proportionality (Equite). Beyond mere justice (equality in material things), liberty fosters equite, or social proportionality. This is a third degree of sociability, combining justice with admiration and esteem.

• It encourages generosity towards the weak and respect for the strong, without leading to subservience or privilege.
• Equite ensures that while material conditions are equal, individuals can still be honored for their unique contributions and virtues, fostering a higher form of social morality.

9. History reveals a constant, inevitable progression towards equality and the abolition of absolute property.

Property and royalty have been crumbling to pieces ever since the world began. As man seeks justice in equality, so society seeks order in anarchy.

Historical trajectory. Throughout history, societal evolution has been a continuous struggle against the principle of property and its inherent inequalities. Revolutions, from ancient Rome to the French Revolution, have consistently aimed to dismantle privileges and move towards greater equality.

• The Roman plebeians' struggle against patrician property, the abolition of debts by Lycurgus and Solon, and the eventual fall of the Roman Empire due to concentrated property, all illustrate this trend.
• Feudalism, with its system of personal and territorial subordination, eventually gave way to the emancipation of serfs and communes, driven by the underlying Christian principle of human equality.

The modern revolution. The French Revolution of 1789, by abolishing privileges of birth and caste, was a crucial step towards equality of persons and rights. However, it failed to abolish property itself, leading to new forms of aristocracy based on wealth.

• Modern reforms, such as electoral reform, regulation of industry, and the debate over national workshops, are all unconscious movements towards limiting and ultimately abolishing property.
• Even economists and jurists, in their attempts to justify or reform property, inadvertently expose its contradictions and point towards its eventual demise.

The inevitable future. Proudhon asserts that the "demon of falsehood and discord" currently gripping society is a symptom of property's final death throes. The constant struggle between the proletariat and the privileged classes, fueled by the inherent injustice of property, will inevitably lead to its abolition.

• The solution lies not in violent overthrow, but in a scientific reconstruction of society based on the principles of equality, law, independence, and proportionality.
• This future society, characterized by free association and the absence of a sovereign (anarchy), will finally realize the true potential of humanity, leading to universal regeneration and peace.

Last updated: January 15, 2026