Did God Have a Wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel

1. Ancient Israel's True Religion Was "Folk Religion," Not Just the Bible's "Book Religion."

My concern in this book is popular religion, or, better, "folk religion" in all its variety and vitality.

Everyday experience. This book re-imagines ancient Israelite religion from the "bottom up," focusing on the daily religious lives of ordinary people rather than the doctrines of the elite few who wrote the Hebrew Bible. For most ancient Israelites, religion was about lived experience, not abstract theology. It was deeply intertwined with their struggle for survival and well-being in a mysterious and perilous world.

Ultimate concerns. Folk religion addressed fundamental human needs, which the author defines as "ultimate concerns." These included:

• Survival: Protection from famine, disease, and disaster.
• Alignment with the universe: Personalizing divine powers to secure favor.
• Placating deities: Through gifts, offerings, sacrifices, prayers, and vows.
  This pragmatic approach, often dismissed as "primitive" or "magic" by modern sensibilities, was the core of ancient religious practice.

Two dimensions. The author posits a "religion in two dimensions": the "Great Tradition" of official, centralized, textual religion (Book religion) and the "Little Tradition" of distributed, local, experiential folk religion. While these categories are somewhat artificial, they highlight the vast difference between the idealized biblical narrative and the diverse, vital practices of the majority.

2. Archaeology, Not Texts Alone, Reveals the Full Story of Israelite Faith.

It is archaeology, and archaeology alone, that can bring back those anonymous, forgotten folk of antiquity and give them their long-lost voice, allowing them to speak to us of their ultimate concerns.

Primary source. The author argues that archaeological data serves as a primary source for understanding ancient Israelite religion, often superior to biblical texts. Unlike the static, edited, and biased biblical narratives, archaeological finds are dynamic, unedited, and offer a direct window into the material culture and practices of all social classes.

Beyond the written word. Archaeology provides a "secular history" of ancient Israel, offering a more realistic, comprehensive, and balanced picture. It reveals aspects of daily life and religious practice that the biblical texts either ignore or condemn. The author emphasizes that artifacts, when properly interpreted, can be read as "texts" themselves, providing invaluable insights into past behaviors and beliefs.

Corrective lens. While biblical texts are crucial for understanding the theological ideals of the elite, archaeology offers a necessary corrective. It allows us to reconstruct the "real-life" context of ancient Israel, showing how religious beliefs were actually lived out by the majority, including women and marginalized groups, whose voices are largely absent from canonical scripture.

3. The Hebrew Bible Presents an Idealized, Elite View, Not Everyday Religious Reality.

The Hebrew Bible's portrait of the religions of Israel is problematic because it is so "idealistic" - that is, so narrowly theological in intent.

Late composition and bias. The biblical texts, in their present form, were composed relatively late in Israel's history (8th-7th century B.C. at earliest, with extensive post-exilic editing). They are products of a small, urban, elite group of literati, priests, and court circles in Jerusalem, not representative of the broader populace. Their perspective is often propagandistic, championing extreme nationalism and orthodox Yahwism.

Selective history. The biblical writers were highly selective, focusing on "great men and public events" and the centrality of the Jerusalem Temple. They often ignored or condemned local religious practices, inadvertently revealing their widespread existence. For example, the detailed account of Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem overshadows the destruction of Lachish, simply because Jerusalem's Temple was spared.

Theological agenda. The Bible's portrayal of Israelite religion is idealistic, reflecting what the authors believed it should have been, rather than what it was. This "Book religion" prioritized abstract theological concepts and systematic dogma, which would have been largely irrelevant to the daily lives of most illiterate, rural Israelites who relied on centuries-old myths and rituals.

4. Daily Life in Ancient Israel Was Harsh, Shaping a Pragmatic, Family-Centered Faith.

Living in antiquity was being "religious," as I shall stress throughout this work.

Marginal existence. Ancient Israel was a tiny, geopolitically vulnerable land with poor natural resources, leading to a marginal economy and society. Most Israelites were subsistence farmers, living in small, kin-based villages, constantly on the verge of extinction due to unpredictable rainfall and political instability. This harsh reality necessitated a pragmatic approach to religion.

Family as core. Society was predominantly rural and organized around the "extended family" or "house of the father." Daily life revolved around survival tasks, with gender-specific roles. Women managed the household, including food preparation, clothing production, and childcare, while men worked the fields. This intimate, demanding context made family shrines and rituals central to religious life.

Practical piety. Given the constant struggle for survival, religious practices were geared towards tangible benefits: health, prosperity, progeny, and protection from disaster. This "functionalist" approach meant that religion was less about abstract theological formulations and more about direct interaction with divine powers to secure immediate blessings.

5. Asherah, the Mother Goddess, Was Widely Venerated, Often as Yahweh's Consort.

I am confident that the biblical writers knew very well what a mipleset was; they just didn't want you to know.

Suppressed presence. Despite biblical attempts to suppress or obscure her, Asherah, the ancient Canaanite Mother Goddess, was widely venerated in ancient Israel. The author argues that biblical references to "asherah" as a wooden pole or tree-like symbol are deliberate circumlocutions to avoid acknowledging her as a powerful deity.

Archaeological confirmation. Key archaeological finds unequivocally demonstrate Asherah's cult:

• Kh. el-Qom and Kuntillet `Ajrud inscriptions: Mention "Yahweh and his Asherah," strongly suggesting a divine consort.
• Female figurines: Hundreds of terra cotta "pillar-base" figurines, emphasizing breasts, are interpreted as talismans representing Asherah, invoked for fertility and nourishment.
• Ta`anach cult stand: Depicts a nude female figure with a Hathor wig, flanked by lions, clearly identifiable as Asherah.
• Tree imagery: The consistent biblical condemnation of worship "under every green tree" and the association of Asherah with trees in Canaanite iconography (e.g., Lachish ewer) confirm her tree-goddess aspect.

Beyond symbolism. The author contends that reducing Asherah to a "mere symbol" misses the point; a symbol is meaningless without the underlying reality it represents. For ordinary worshippers, Asherah was a living, potent deity, a patroness of mothers and a source of blessings, often seen as Yahweh's divine partner.

6. Women Were the Primary "Ritual Experts" in the Domestic Sphere of Israelite Religion.

Women's religion cannot be equated with goddess worship, but there is sufficient evidence to suggest that women's religion did represent a significantly differentiated form of religious expression within Yahwism.

Invisible voices. While largely marginalized in public life and biblical texts, women played a crucial, unacknowledged role in ancient Israelite religion, particularly in the "religion of hearth and home." They were the primary custodians of family rituals and traditions, often acting as "ritual experts" in their communities.

Gender-specific piety. Women's religious practices were shaped by their unique life experiences and biological processes, focusing on:

• Conception, childbirth, and infant rearing.
• Health, welfare, and prosperity of the family.
• Maintaining family shrines and ancestral tombs.
• Making vows and offering votives.
  These informal, often spontaneous, activities were distinct from the formal, male-dominated public cult.

Archaeological correlates. The archaeological record provides evidence for these women's cults:

• Female figurines: Ubiquitous in domestic contexts, used as talismans for fertility.
• Incense altars: Small, portable altars suggest women presided over home incense offerings.
• Food preparation tools: Found in shrines, indicating women's role in cultic meals.
• Amulets and grave goods: Reflecting women's concerns for protection and the afterlife.
  These findings challenge the androcentric bias of biblical scholarship, restoring women's long-lost voices and contributions to Israelite religious life.

7. Magic and Divination Were Integral, Accepted Aspects of Popular Israelite Piety.

Religion is in effect "magic," unless one assumes that it is only about theological formulae.

Pervasive practice. Despite strict biblical prohibitions against magic and divination (e.g., Deuteronomy 18), these practices were widespread and deeply rooted in ancient Israelite folk religion. The very condemnation by biblical writers confirms their popularity, indicating that magic was not an anomaly but an integral part of everyday piety.

Practical cosmology. The ancient Israelite worldview, often described as "mythopoeic," sought practical ways to appropriate divine powers. Magic was a rational response within this framework, a means to influence the unpredictable forces of nature and secure desired outcomes. It was about "how things work" in a metaphysical sense.

Archaeological evidence. Numerous artifacts attest to the prevalence of magic:

• Astragali (knucklebones): Found in shrines, used for divination.
• Inscribed vessels: Bowls with blessings or divine names, interpreted as sympathetic magic for divine favor.
• Silver amulets: Like the Ketef Hinnom scroll, worn for protection and good luck, demonstrating scripture used as an apotropaic device.
• Egyptian amulets: Bes figurines and Eye-of-Horus plaques, common in Judean tombs, showing belief in protective charms.
• Seals: With astral and solar imagery, reflecting astrological worship.
  These objects reveal a vibrant magical tradition, even in Jerusalem, challenging the notion of a purely "orthodox" Israelite religion.

8. Israelite Religion Evolved from Polytheism to Monotheism, a Late and Gradual Shift.

Virtually all mainstream scholars (and even a few conservatives) acknowledge that true monotheism emerged only in the period of the exile in Babylon in the 6th century B.C.

Early polytheism. Contrary to traditional views, ancient Israelite religion was not monotheistic from its inception. Early Israelite faith was characterized by polytheism or, at best, monolatry (worship of one god while acknowledging others). The "God of the Fathers" was Canaanite El, and the biblical texts themselves candidly preserve evidence of a divine council and other deities.

El's epithets. The Pentateuch's oldest literary strands frequently refer to El with ancient epithets:

• El-Shadday: "El, the One of the mountains," possibly linked to "breasts" (shad), suggesting a storm god with procreative powers.
• El-Elyon: "God Most High," cognate with Canaanite Baal's epithet "Puissant Baal."
• El-Olam: "El the Everlasting," echoing Canaanite El's title "Father of Years."
  These epithets, often associated with Canaanite holy places and natural phenomena, demonstrate the deep roots of Israel's deity in the broader West Semitic pantheon.

Gradual ascendancy. Yahweh gradually supplanted El, but the transition was not immediate or absolute. The First Commandment, "You shall have no other gods before me," implies the existence of other deities. This pragmatic approach, where a variety of gods addressed a variety of needs, was characteristic of folk religion throughout much of the monarchy.

9. Canaanite Traditions Formed the Deep Roots of Israelite Religious Practices.

It is essential to consider biblical religion as a subset of Israelite religion and Israelite religion as a subset of Canaanite religion.

Cultural continuity. Israelite religion did not emerge in opposition to Canaanite culture, as biblical propagandists claimed, but rather evolved directly from it. The hundreds of Ugaritic mythological texts from the Late Bronze Age reveal a common West Semitic world that profoundly influenced Israelite beliefs and practices.

Shared practices. Many core aspects of Israelite religion have clear Canaanite forerunners:

• Sacrificial system: The primacy of animal sacrifice, types of animals, and rituals were largely inherited from Canaanite customs.
• Liturgical calendar: Festivals like Rosh ha-shanah, Sukkot, Pesach, and Shavu`ot originated in the Canaanite agricultural year, later "historicized" by Israel.
• Divine imagery: Epithets for El, Baal, and Asherah, as well as the concept of a divine council, are directly paralleled in Ugaritic texts.
  This continuity challenges the notion of Israelite "uniqueness" and highlights the shared cultural heritage of the region.

Beyond "syncretism." The author argues against the pejorative term "syncretism," suggesting that many supposedly "pagan" practices were simply "native" aspects of Israelite culture. The idea of "fertility cults," while often caricatured, reflects the fundamental ancient concern for the fecundity of humans, animals, and fields—a pragmatic response to the urgent need for survival.

10. The Monarchy Centralized Power, Leading to Conflict with Local Folk Cults.

The Temple served principally not to house public religious rituals, but to legitimate the authority of the king as Yahweh's designated representative.

State formation. The rise of the United Monarchy (Saul, David, Solomon) in the 10th century B.C. marked a profound shift from an egalitarian, rural tribal society to a centralized state. This brought about urbanism, economic specialization, and social stratification, creating a new class of urban elites.

Royal cult. The construction of the Solomonic Temple in Jerusalem was a monumental, state-sponsored project, designed by Phoenician architects. It symbolized the new state's power and prestige, aiming to centralize religious life under royal and priestly authority. This "royal chapel" largely disenfranchised ordinary people, who rarely accessed or worshipped within it.

Clash of traditions. The Temple and its "state cult" represented a radical departure from earlier, decentralized folk religion. This new "Book religion" focused on the Davidic dynasty and a "royal theology" that asserted Yahweh's exclusive dwelling in Jerusalem. This inevitably clashed with the deeply entrenched local shrines (bamot), standing stones (massebot), and Asherah cults that had flourished in the countryside for centuries.

11. The Babylonian Exile Catalyzed Monotheism, Codifying "Book Religion" as Orthodoxy.

The supreme irony of Israelite and Jewish history is that the first edited version of the Hebrew Bible was not a product of the Jerusalem Temple and court in their heyday, but of the experience of slavery, destitution, and despair in a foreign land.

Religious crisis. The fall of Judah and the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 586 B.C. plunged Israel into a profound religious crisis. The loss of the Temple, the diminished priesthood, and the disruption of family life left survivors without traditional religious anchors. This catastrophe forced a radical rethinking of divinity.

Exilic transformation. Against all odds, the exile became the crucible for the emergence of true monotheism. The deported leadership, exposed to other national gods, began to universalize Yahweh's power, expanding his scope to encompass all nations. This "rationalization of defeat" forged a new identity and destiny for a people without hope.

Triumph of the Book. The edited Hebrew Bible, carried by the exiles, became the new source of authority. Ezra and his disciples codified "Book religion," replacing the Temple and old priesthood with the written Law. This new orthodoxy, demanding exclusive Yahwism and conformity to the Law, superseded traditional family values and effectively drove polytheistic folk religion underground.

12. The Suppressed Goddess Persisted, Her Spirit Resurfacing in Later Jewish Mysticism.

The rediscovery of the Goddess and of women's popular cults in ancient Israel redresses the balance.

Vestiges of the past. While polytheistic practices largely disappeared after the Iron Age, some vestiges of folk religion, particularly magic and feminine divine imagery, survived in later Judaism. "Incantation bowls" from the 6th-7th century A.D. attest to Jewish protection rituals against the night goddess Lilith, a figure with ancient Mesopotamian roots.

Shekinah's emergence. In medieval Jewish mystical tradition (Kabbala), a feminine divine figure called the "Shekinah" (from Hebrew "to dwell") emerged, representing God's earthly presence. This concept, though late, echoes the biblical idea of Yahweh's "name" dwelling in the Tabernacle. The Shekinah is often portrayed as the "Mother," "Matronit," or "Bride" of God, with striking sexual imagery.

Lady Wisdom's connection. Earlier biblical texts, like Proverbs, feature "Lady Wisdom" (Hebrew hokma) as a partner with Yahweh in creation, a life-giving figure, and "a tree of life." These attributes strongly resonate with Asherah, suggesting a "hypostatization" of Yahweh's feminine aspects that paved the way for the Shekinah. The author argues that archaeology provides the "missing link" between Asherah and the Shekinah, showing the enduring presence of the Great Mother in Jewish piety.

Last updated: October 28, 2025