A History of Ancient Greece in Fifty Lives

1. The Intertwined Nature of History, Myth, and Identity in Ancient Greece

Many of these values were encapsulated in two early works of literature, the Iliad and Odyssey, epic poems which imagined all Greece united in the face of a common foe as they never were in reality.

Shared narratives. Ancient Greek identity was forged through a shared language and common beliefs, heavily influenced by epic poems like the Iliad and Odyssey. These narratives, though largely fictional, provided a sense of unity and characterization that reflected the reality of powerful personalities vying for glory, even as tensions threatened to disrupt Greek unity.

Myth as history. For early, pre-literate societies, oral traditions, even if unexamined, served as history, with stories of heroes like Heracles, Theseus, Jason, and the Trojan War shaping cultural identity. Figures like the 3rd-century polymath Eratosthenes dated the Sack of Troy to 1184 BC, demonstrating how deeply these myths were integrated into their understanding of the past, even driving Heinrich Schliemann's 19th-century excavations.

Literary influence. The adoption of the Phoenician alphabet in the mid-8th century BC revolutionized the preservation of these oral traditions, leading to the first epic poetry attributed to Homer and Hesiod. These works not only filled spaces left by forgotten ancestors but also provided a framework for understanding the world, even if Hesiod himself, in his Theogony, claimed the Muses possessed "knowledge to invent convincing lies, and the skill, when so desired, to tell the truth."

2. The Rise and Fall of Tyrants: Power, Propaganda, and Public Works

Peisistratus was so convincing an actor that, by feigning virtues which were alien to him, he won more acclaim than those who actually possessed them.

Benevolent autocrats. Early Greek city-states were often ruled by powerful families or 'tyrannoi,' a term that initially lacked its modern pejorative connotations. Many, like Peisistratus of Athens, were seen as beneficent, governing with a degree of fairness and cooperation with legislative councils, though their rule was often seized through cunning and theatrical displays.

Masterful manipulation. Leaders like Peisistratus and Polycrates understood the power of propaganda and public perception. Peisistratus famously staged theatrical returns to Athens, once even using a tall woman, Phya, dressed as Athene to escort him. He also manipulated history by commissioning an "authorized version" of Homer's epics to enhance Athens' profile and international kudos.

Civic enhancement. Tyrants invested heavily in public works and cultural initiatives to consolidate power and gain popular support.

• Peisistratus: Aqueduct for the Agora, propylaea for the Acropolis, Temple of Olympian Zeus, inauguration of the Greater Panathenaic Games and City Dionysia.
• Polycrates: Colossal Temple of Hera, a breakwater, and a 1,130-yard water tunnel beneath Mount Castro.
  These projects not only stimulated employment but also projected an image of prosperity and divine favor, despite the underlying political machinations.

3. Athens' Transformation: From Aristocracy to Democracy and Empire

The People had demonstrated their ability to make or break their leaders. It was a message Cleisthenes could not ignore.

Democratic origins. Athens' journey from aristocratic rule to democracy was marked by significant reforms, often spurred by popular uprisings against entrenched power. Cleisthenes, an unlikely democrat from the powerful Alcmaeonid family, recognized the people's growing influence after the expulsion of Hippias, who had ruled with an iron fist following his brother's assassination.

Radical restructuring. Cleisthenes' reforms aimed to break down traditional family allegiances by reorganizing citizens into ten new tribes, geographically diverse to foster political coherence across rural, coastal, and city districts. He also revised the constitution, extending membership in lawcourts and legislative bodies to a wider range of social classes, often decided by lot, and introduced ostracism to prevent any one politician from becoming too powerful.

Imperial ambitions. Themistocles, a populist leader, further transformed Athens into a major maritime power by advocating for a massive fleet built with silver from Laurium. This shift empowered the urban poor who manned the triremes, fundamentally altering the political status quo and laying the groundwork for Athens' Delian League, which quickly evolved from an alliance into an empire, as seen in Cimon's campaigns and the suppression of Naxos.

4. The Persian Wars: A Crucible for Greek Unity and Identity

More than any other literature, Homer’s epics defined what it was to be Greek.

External threat, internal unity. The Persian invasions of Greece in 490 and 480/79 BC served as a powerful catalyst for Greek identity, uniting disparate city-states against a common "barbarian" foe. Figures like Miltiades at Marathon and Leonidas at Thermopylae became enduring symbols of Greek courage and resistance, their deeds celebrated in epitaphs and later histories.

Strategic brilliance and sacrifice. Themistocles' foresight in building a strong Athenian navy proved crucial at Salamis, where Greek triremes, despite being outnumbered, decisively defeated the Persian fleet. Leonidas and his 300 Spartans at Thermopylae, though ultimately defeated, embodied the spirit of self-sacrifice for the polis, recalling a prophecy that Sparta would survive if one of its kings died.

Sicilian front. The Persian threat was not isolated to the mainland. On the same day as Thermopylae, Sicilian Greeks under Gelon of Syracuse faced a massive Carthaginian invasion at Himera. Gelon's decisive victory, achieved through cunning and military prowess, secured Greek Sicily for decades, demonstrating a broader panhellenic struggle against external powers, even if mainland Greeks were initially reluctant to aid their western cousins.

5. The Peloponnesian War: Internal Strife and the Erosion of Ideals

But war, which deprives men of the easy means to satisfy their daily needs, is a stern teacher, which matches men’s behaviour to their circumstances.

A devastating conflict. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, meticulously chronicled by Thucydides, was a protracted and brutal conflict that eroded the moral fabric of Greek society. It highlighted the inherent tensions between Athenian democracy and imperialism, and Spartan oligarchy, leading to a breakdown of traditional values.

Demagoguery and opportunism. The death of Pericles left a power vacuum, leading to the rise of populist demagogues like Cleon, who advocated for aggressive policies and exploited public sentiment, even proposing the execution of all adult males in rebellious Mytilene. Alcibiades, a charismatic but self-serving aristocrat, further destabilized Athens through his shifting allegiances and personal ambitions, ultimately betraying his city to Sparta and Persia.

Moral decay and human cost. Thucydides observed how the war led to a decline in ethical standards, where "thoughtless violence" was rebranded as "patriotic courage," and the meaning of words changed to suit the moment. The devastating plague in Athens, the brutal treatment of Melos, and the disastrous Sicilian Expedition underscored the immense human cost and moral compromises made, leaving Athens vulnerable and ultimately defeated, its Long Walls dismantled.

6. The Golden Age of Philosophy and Arts: Shaping Western Thought

Man is the measure of all things: of those which are, that they are, and of those which are not, that they are not.

Intellectual ferment. Despite or perhaps because of the political turmoil, the 5th and 4th centuries BC saw an extraordinary flourishing of philosophy, drama, and art in Greece, particularly in Athens. Thinkers like Anaxagoras challenged traditional religious beliefs with scientific explanations, while sophists like Protagoras questioned absolute truth and emphasized human perception, famously stating "Man is the measure of all things."

Dramatic innovation. Playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides explored profound themes of justice, fate, and human nature.

• Aeschylus: Introduced a second actor, transforming drama into dialogue and exploring cycles of retribution in Oresteia.
• Sophocles: Focused on fatalism and human powerlessness, as in Oedipus Tyrannos, and was revered as Dexion for his piety.
• Euripides: Explored the psychology of female characters and the destructive nature of war, influencing later comedy and even saving Athenian lives in Sicily.
  Aristophanes, through biting satire, critiqued contemporary politics and society, even if his direct impact was limited.

Artistic and ethical pursuits. Sculptors like Pheidias created masterpieces like the Parthenon's Athene and the Zeus at Olympia, embodying civic pride and divine majesty, though his close ties to Pericles led to accusations. Philosophers like Socrates, through his elenchic method, challenged Athenians to examine their beliefs, while Plato and Aristotle laid the foundations for Western metaphysics, ethics, and scientific inquiry, seeking order and truth in a chaotic world.

7. Alexander the Great: Conquest, Hellenization, and the Dawn of a New Era

Where is Great Alexander? Great Alexander lives and reigns!

A new kind of king. Alexander III, tutored by Aristotle and driven by the motto "always to be best," transformed Macedon into the dominant power in Greece. His early life, marked by military prowess (like taming Bucephalus) and a keen understanding of propaganda, set the stage for an unprecedented era of conquest, culminating in his cavalry charge at Chaeronea.

Unprecedented expansion. Alexander's invasion of Persia, framed as vengeance for past wrongs, led to the rapid collapse of the Achaemenid Empire. His campaigns, from Granicus to Issus and Gaugamela, demonstrated tactical genius and personal bravery, culminating in his proclamation as Darius' successor and the symbolic burning of Persepolis, either as calculated vengeance or drunken vandalism.

Hellenistic legacy. Alexander's conquests spread Greek culture and language across vast new territories, leading to the "Hellenistic Age." He founded cities, appointed Persian satraps alongside Macedonian governors, and attempted to integrate diverse peoples through marriages, though his adoption of Eastern customs (like proskynesis) often alienated his Macedonian and Greek followers. His death in Babylon, shrouded in mystery, marked the beginning of intense power struggles among his generals.

8. The Hellenistic Dynasts: Power Struggles and the Birth of New Centers of Learning

For Ptolemy to have lied would have been shameful, since like Alexander he was a king.

Fragmentation and conflict. Alexander's death triggered decades of brutal "funeral games" among his successor generals (the Diadochi), who carved up his vast empire. This era, the Hellenistic Age, was characterized by constant warfare, shifting alliances, and the rise of new, often ruthless, dynasties, as each general vied for total power.

Ptolemy's vision in Egypt. Ptolemy I, one of Alexander's generals, secured Egypt and established the Ptolemaic dynasty. He strategically consolidated power, annexing resource-rich territories like Cyrene and Cyprus, and even stealing Alexander's embalmed body to legitimize his rule. His most enduring legacy was the foundation of Alexandria as a new cultural and intellectual capital.

Alexandria: A beacon of knowledge. Ptolemy I, advised by Demetrius of Phalerum, established the Museum and its famous Library in Alexandria. This state-funded research center attracted leading scholars and scientists, becoming the pre-eminent seat of learning in the ancient world, a repository of knowledge and a hub for innovation in literature, mathematics, and engineering, as exemplified by figures like Apollonius of Rhodes and Archimedes.

9. Greece in the Shadow of Rome: Cultural Influence Amidst Political Subjugation

Greece, once captured, captured her fierce conqueror and introduced her arts to rustic Latium.

The rise of Rome. As the Hellenistic world fragmented, Rome's power steadily grew, first in Italy, then expanding eastward. Greek city-states, weakened by internecine conflicts and the ambitions of figures like Pyrrhus of Epirus, increasingly found themselves forming alliances with or falling under the sway of the burgeoning Roman Republic.

Pyrrhus's pyrrhic victories. Pyrrhus, a brilliant but impatient general, sought to emulate Alexander by campaigning in Italy and Sicily against Rome and Carthage. Despite winning battles like Heraclea and Asculum, his heavy losses led to "pyrrhic victories," ultimately failing to establish lasting control and paving the way for Rome's dominance in southern Italy, which they renamed Beneventum.

Cultural conquest. By 146 BC, Rome had sacked Carthage and Corinth, effectively ending Greek independence and annexing Greece as a province. However, Greek culture profoundly influenced Rome, with Greek art, architecture, literature, and philosophy permeating Roman society. Roman authors like Livius Andronicus, Plautus, and Virgil adapted Greek genres, and figures like Plutarch later sought to reconcile the two cultures through parallel biographies.

10. The Subjectivity and Evolution of Historical Narrative

In ancient sources much of what passes for biographical truth is invention, spun to compensate for ignorance or elaborated for effect... Yet such inventions are not worthless.

Truth and invention. Ancient Greek historiography and biography, while pioneering, were often far from objective. Authors frequently blended fact with myth, anecdote, and deliberate invention to entertain, moralize, or serve political agendas. This subjective approach means that even seemingly factual accounts, like the lovelorn suicide of Sappho or Empedocles' transcendental deaths, must be read with a critical eye.

From myth to method. Early chroniclers like Hesiod and Homer used epic poetry to shape collective memory, while logographoi like Hecataeus attempted to rationalize mythology, famously declaring, "I write what I believe to be true, since I consider the tales of the Greeks to be both innumerable and stupid." Herodotus revolutionized history with active investigation and eyewitness accounts, though still incorporating divine intervention. Thucydides, in contrast, aimed for a purely human, rational account, emphasizing accuracy and context, declaring his work "a possession for eternity."

Biography as encomium. Biography often originated as encomium, praising the dead, and later authors like Xenophon and Plutarch continued this tradition, shaping narratives to highlight virtues or draw comparisons. The "unreliability" of sources, as the author notes, reveals underlying cultural values and expectations, offering valuable insights into the ancient Greek experience, even when the "solid form" of truth remains elusive, as with Aspasia's true status.

Last updated: January 17, 2026