The Infernal Machine

1. Dynamite: A Dual-Use Invention Unleashes Unforeseen Terror

"My new explosive…is simply nitroglycerine in combination with a very porous silicate, and I have given it a new name, not to hide its nature, but to emphasize its explosive traits in a new form; these are so different that a new name is called for."

Nobel's innovation. Alfred Nobel's invention of dynamite in 1866 revolutionized engineering, allowing unprecedented feats like railroad tunnels and subways. His blasting cap and diatomite paste tamed volatile nitroglycerin, making it a powerful tool for construction and mining, generating immense wealth for Nobel.

Unintended consequences. Despite Nobel's intent for peaceful engineering, dynamite's compact and potent nature quickly made it a weapon for political violence. Its ease of use and destructive power gave small groups an asymmetric advantage, leading to its adoption by revolutionaries and earning them the moniker "the Dynamite Club."

A grim legacy. Nobel himself was dismayed by dynamite's misuse, reading obituaries that mistakenly called him "The Merchant of Death." This prompted him to establish the Nobel Prizes, including the Peace Prize, as an atonement for the carnage his invention had inadvertently unleashed on the world.

2. Anarchism's Vision: Mutual Aid vs. The "Propaganda of the Deed"

"I lost in Siberia whatever faith in state discipline I had cherished before. I was prepared to become an anarchist."

Kropotkin's philosophy. Peter Kropotkin, a Russian aristocrat turned geographer, developed the theory of "mutual aid" after observing cooperation in Siberian ecosystems. He envisioned stateless societies organized around small, egalitarian collectives, like medieval guilds, as the natural and most effective form of human organization.

The allure of violence. While Kropotkin advocated for peaceful, cooperative communities, many anarchists embraced "propaganda of the deed"—spectacular acts of violence against symbols of authority. This tactic, popularized by figures like Johann Most, aimed to incite revolution and demonstrate the "terrible power of the powerless."

A vexing question. The movement struggled with the role of violence. While some, like Emma Goldman, wrestled with its moral implications, others, like Alexander Berkman, saw it as a necessary, even noble, means to combat the systemic violence of industrial capitalism. This internal conflict would define anarchism's public image.

3. The Birth of Modern Terrorism: Targeting Leaders and Civilians

"Alexander II must die…He will die, and with him, we, his enemies, his executioners, shall die too….Fate has doomed me to an early death, I shall not see our victory, I shall not live one day, one hour in the bright season of our triumph, but I believe that with my death I shall do all that it is my duty to do, and no one in the world can demand more of me."

Czar's assassination. The assassination of Czar Alexander II in 1881 by Sofia Perovskaya and the People's Will marked a pivotal moment. Despite numerous failed attempts, the final, successful bombing—which killed the bomber, Ignaty Grinevitsky, alongside the Czar—is considered history's first suicide bombing, ushering in the age of terror.

Escalation of targets. Initially, anarchists targeted heads of state and industrialists, but this evolved. Émile Henry's 1894 bombing of the Café Terminus in Paris, deliberately targeting ordinary civilians, established a new, horrifying precedent for political violence that would become a hallmark of modern terrorism.

Global impact. The wave of anarchist bombings across Europe in the late 19th century, including the assassinations of multiple heads of state, demonstrated the global reach of this new form of political violence. It transformed the perception of security and the vulnerability of public life.

4. Industrial Violence Fuels Radical Retaliation

"The bomb is the echo of your cannon, trained upon our starving brothers; it is the cry of the wounded striker; ’tis the voice of hungry women and children; the shriek of those maimed and torn in your industrial slaughterhouses; it is the dull thud of the policeman’s club upon a defenseless head…The bomb is the ghost of your past crimes."

Brutality of industrialization. The late 19th century saw immense wealth accumulation alongside horrific working conditions, epitomized by factories like the McCormick Reaper Works. Workers faced:

• Twelve-hour days, six-day weeks
• Sweltering, polluted environments
• High rates of maiming and death from accidents
• Suppression of unions by private armies like the Pinkertons

Homestead and Ludlow. Events like the 1892 Homestead Strike and the 1914 Ludlow Massacre, where private security and state militias violently suppressed striking workers, fueled anarchist outrage. These incidents, particularly the deaths of women and children at Ludlow, were seen as direct acts of capitalist violence, justifying retaliation.

Anarchist justification. For figures like Alexander Berkman and Emma Goldman, the "infernal machine" of dynamite was a response to the "everlasting inferno of heat and noise" of industrial capitalism. They argued that the state and corporations were already perpetrating widespread violence, making anarchist attentats a form of self-defense or retribution.

5. The State's Counter-Response: Scientific Detection and Surveillance

"There can be no doubt as to the advantage of having, besides their photographs, a nature-copy of the forever unchangeable finger-furrows of important criminals."

Bertillon's innovation. Alphonse Bertillon pioneered forensic science in Paris, developing anthropometry—a system of precise body measurements—and the "portrait parlé" (mug shot). His crucial contribution was a classification system that allowed rapid identification of repeat offenders from large databases, transforming criminal identification.

Fingerprinting's rise. Henry Faulds and later Francis Galton recognized the unique and immutable nature of fingerprints. This biometric, easily left at crime scenes, proved superior to anthropometry and photography, becoming a cornerstone of modern forensic investigation.

International cooperation. The surge in anarchist bombings led to the 1898 International Conference for the Social Defense Against Anarchists, which adopted Bertillon's system and laid the groundwork for Interpol. This marked the beginning of coordinated international efforts to track and identify criminals.

6. NYPD's Transformation: From Corruption to Forensic Prowess

"You must maintain the reputation that the Police Department is now the terror of the evil-doer. Unless you do your work as it should be done, the regular life of the city cannot go on."

A corrupt past. For much of the 19th century, New York City's police force was notoriously corrupt and inefficient, deeply intertwined with political machines. Detectives often relied on brute force ("the third degree") rather than systematic investigation.

Faurot's pioneering work. Joseph Faurot, a cerebral NYPD detective, championed the adoption of European forensic methods. After studying at Scotland Yard and with Bertillon, he established the city's first fingerprint division, proving its efficacy in the landmark 1911 Charles Crispi conviction.

Woods's modernization. Arthur Woods, appointed Police Commissioner in 1914, spearheaded a radical overhaul of the NYPD. He created the Bomb and Anarchist Squad, integrated scientific methods, and fostered a new "esprit de corps," transforming the department into a world-class law enforcement agency.

7. Undercover Operations: Infiltrating Radical Networks

"Lieutenant Petrosino, in spite of his devotion to duty, his long experience, and his great detective skill, was unable to overcome the handicap of publicity."

The Black Hand threat. The early 20th century saw the rise of the Black Hand, an Italian-American extortion syndicate that used dynamite as a tool of intimidation. Commissioner Bingham and Arthur Woods recognized the need for undercover agents to infiltrate such decentralized, immigrant-based criminal groups.

Petrosino's sacrifice. Joseph Petrosino, head of the NYPD's Italian Squad, was sent on a secret mission to Sicily to gather intelligence on Black Hand members. His identity was compromised, leading to his assassination in Palermo in 1909, highlighting the extreme dangers of undercover work and the "handicap of publicity."

Polignani's triumph. Despite Petrosino's death, Woods and Tunney deployed Amedeo Polignani, an Italian-speaking detective, to infiltrate the Bresci Circle anarchists. Polignani's daring undercover work, including supplying bomb-making materials and allowing a live fuse to be lit in St. Patrick's Cathedral, successfully foiled a major terrorist plot and validated the strategy.

8. J. Edgar Hoover: Weaponizing Information to Build the Surveillance State

"The job…trained me in the value of collating material. It gave me an excellent foundation for my work in the FBI where it has been necessary to collate information and evidence."

Early career. J. Edgar Hoover, a young law student, began his career at the Library of Congress, where he mastered systematic information classification. This experience proved foundational for his later work in law enforcement.

The Radical Division. The 1919 anarchist bombing campaign, targeting Attorney General Palmer and other prominent figures, spurred the creation of the Justice Department's Radical Division. Palmer appointed Hoover to lead this new unit, tasked with identifying and tracking potential subversives.

Editorial File System. Hoover's genius lay in creating the Editorial File System, a relational database of index cards that cross-referenced individuals, organizations, ideologies, and events. This system weaponized library science, enabling the rapid collation of information on radicals and becoming the blueprint for the FBI's vast surveillance apparatus.

9. The Tragic Irony: Anarchism's Defeat Strengthens the State

"If I have undergone any change it is not in my ideal. It is more in the realization that a great end does not justify all means."

Espionage Act and arrests. The United States' entry into World War I and the subsequent "Preparedness" movement led to the Espionage Act of 1917. Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman, vocal opponents of conscription, were among the first to be arrested and convicted under this sweeping legislation.

Deportation and exile. Hoover's meticulously compiled dossier, leveraging the Editorial File System, provided the evidence for Goldman and Berkman's deportation. In 1919, they were exiled to Russia on the "Red Ark," marking the end of their active presence in American political life.

Anarchism's unintended consequence. The anarchists' goal of "smashing the state" ironically contributed to its strengthening. Their dynamite-driven terrorism spurred the development of sophisticated state surveillance, forensic science, and federal investigative agencies, creating a more pervasive and powerful state apparatus than they could have imagined.

10. Anarchism's Enduring Legacy: The Persistence of Terrorism

"A girdle of dynamite encircles the world, not only the old but the new. The bloody band of tyrants are dancing on the surface of a volcano. There is dynamite in England, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, New York, and Canada."

Ideals fade, tactics persist. While anarchism as a political philosophy largely disappeared from mainstream American discourse after 1920, its violent tactics endured. The guild system and mutual aid vision did not scale, but the "propaganda of the deed" became a template for future terrorist movements.

A different 20th century. The suppression of anarchism meant that the 20th century's ideological battles were fought between hierarchical systems: state capitalism, state communism, and fascism. The alternative vision of a decentralized, mutual-aid society, once a viable possibility, was effectively extinguished.

Terrorism's monstrous slope. The methods of destruction evolved from dynamite to car bombs and passenger planes, but the core tactic of advancing political agendas through spectacular violence against civilians, pioneered by anarchists, continued its "monstrous upward slope." The psychological and political impact of this violence remains a heavy weight on global society.

Last updated: September 30, 2025