Key Takeaways
1. Christianity's Divine Origin and Ancient Roots
Could I do better than start from the beginning of the dispensation of our Saviour and Lord, Jesus the Christ of God?
A timeless faith. Eusebius begins by asserting that Christianity is not a new or strange religion, but rather the most ancient and primitive, rooted in the pre-existent Word of God, Jesus Christ. This divine Word, or Logos, was active in creation and appeared to the patriarchs and prophets of old, making the Christian way of life a recovery of primordial truth.
Pre-Incarnation manifestations. The Word of God, though not yet incarnate, revealed Himself to figures like Abraham, Jacob, and Moses, guiding them and teaching them the knowledge of the Father. These "theophanies" demonstrate Christ's eternal nature and His continuous involvement with humanity long before His physical birth.
- Abraham worshipped Him as God by the oak of Mamre.
- Jacob wrestled with Him, calling the place "The Form of God."
- Moses encountered Him in the Burning Bush.
- Joshua saw Him as "Commander-in-chief of the army of the Lord."
Prophetic foreshadowing. Even the names "Jesus" and "Christ" were honored by ancient prophets, foreshadowing the coming of the Saviour. Moses, for instance, bestowed the title "Christ" on the high priest and "Jesus" on his successor, Joshua, as symbols of future divine authority. This deep historical and theological grounding counters any notion of Christianity as a recent invention.
2. Apostolic Foundations and the Early Church's Spread
The first, then, to be chosen by lot for the apostleship in place of the traitor Judas was Matthias, who, as has been mentioned, had been one of the Lord’s disciples.
Establishing leadership. Following Christ's Ascension, the apostles, filled with divine power, established the foundational structures of the Church. Matthias was chosen to complete the number of the Twelve, and seven deacons, including Stephen, were appointed to serve the community. James, "the Lord's brother," became the first bishop of Jerusalem, signifying the early establishment of episcopal leadership.
Global evangelization. The apostles dispersed throughout the world, spreading the "saving word" to various nations. Their mission was marked by miraculous deeds and unwavering courage, leading to the rapid growth of Christian communities.
- Thomas was sent to Parthia.
- Andrew went to Scythia.
- John settled in Asia.
- Peter preached in Pontus, Galatia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia, eventually being crucified in Rome.
- Paul evangelized from Jerusalem to Illyricum and was martyred in Rome.
Early conversions and growth. The divine grace extended beyond the Jewish community, with figures like Cornelius (the first Gentile convert through Peter) and the burgeoning church in Antioch, where believers were first called "Christians." This period saw the rapid formation of churches, often led by apostles or their immediate successors, laying the groundwork for the global reach of the faith.
3. Waves of Persecution and the Steadfastness of Martyrs
The severity of our trials here, the unbridled fury of the heathen against God’s people, the untold sufferings of the blessed martyrs, we are incapable of describing in detail: indeed no pen could do them justice.
Early Jewish hostility. The nascent Church faced immediate opposition, first from Jewish authorities who persecuted Christ's disciples, stoning Stephen and beheading James. This initial hostility led to the dispersion of believers, inadvertently aiding the spread of the Gospel beyond Jerusalem.
Imperial Roman persecutions. Roman emperors, often incited by popular clamor or false accusations, launched campaigns against Christians. Eusebius highlights specific reigns where persecution intensified:
- Nero: The first emperor to persecute Christians, leading to the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul.
- Domitian: The second to organize persecution, exiling John the Apostle to Patmos.
- Decius: Initiated the first empire-wide persecution, demanding universal sacrifice and causing widespread apostasy and martyrdoms, including Fabian of Rome and Alexander of Jerusalem.
- Valerian: Initially friendly, then instigated severe persecution, leading to the banishment of Dionysius of Alexandria and the martyrdom of Marinus.
Heroism in suffering. Despite horrific tortures—floggings, scraping, burning, exposure to wild beasts, and crucifixion—martyrs displayed astonishing courage and unwavering faith. Their endurance served as a powerful testimony, often converting onlookers and strengthening the resolve of fellow believers. Eusebius recounts the harrowing experiences of the Gallic martyrs, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, and countless others, emphasizing their "unshakeable determination" and "divine power and enthusiasm."
4. The Rise of Heresies and the Defense of Orthodoxy
Others were elated as if by the Holy Spirit or a prophetic gift, were filled with conceit, and forgot the Lord’s distinction. They welcomed a spirit that injured and deluded the mind and led the people astray: they were beguiled and deceived by it, so that it could not now be reduced to silence.
Internal threats to truth. Even as the Church grew, it faced internal challenges from various heretical sects that sought to distort Christian doctrine. Eusebius meticulously records these deviations, viewing them as the work of the "enemy of man's salvation" attempting to corrupt the "wholesome standard of the saving message."
Key heretical movements:
- Simon Magus and Menander: Early Gnostics who claimed divine status and offered magical salvation, leading many astray with "artful impostures."
- Ebionites: Jewish Christians who held "poor and mean opinions" of Christ, regarding Him as merely human and insisting on strict adherence to Mosaic Law.
- Cerinthus: A chiliast who taught of an earthly kingdom of Christ characterized by sensual indulgence, and to whom some ascribed the Revelation of John.
- Marcion: Rejected the Old Testament and its God, positing a different, higher God revealed by Christ, and accepting only a truncated canon of Scripture.
- Montanism (Phrygian Heresy): Claimed new ecstatic prophecies, challenging the authority of bishops and leading to schisms, particularly in Asia Minor.
- Paul of Samosata: Bishop of Antioch who held "low, degraded opinions about Christ," asserting He was merely human, leading to his excommunication by multiple synods.
Orthodox defense. Church leaders and writers vigorously combated these heresies through oral arguments and written polemics, "demolishing their erroneous ideas" and preserving the "splendour of the Catholic and only true Church." These efforts ensured the "unshakeable devotion to the apostolic tradition" and clarified core Christian beliefs for future generations.
5. Key Theologians and Scholars Shaping Early Christian Thought
Of these Pantaenus was one: it is stated that he went as far as India, where he appears to have found that Matthew’s gospel had arrived before him and was in the hands of some there who had come to know Christ.
Alexandrian intellectual tradition. Eusebius highlights the Catechetical School of Alexandria as a crucial center of Christian learning, producing influential scholars who combined deep scriptural knowledge with philosophical acumen.
- Pantaenus: The first head of the Alexandrian school, a Stoic philosopher who became a zealous evangelist, even traveling to India.
- Clement of Alexandria: Pantaenus's successor, a prolific writer who synthesized Christian doctrine with Greek philosophy, leaving behind works like the Miscellanies and Outlines.
- Origen: Clement's pupil and the most renowned scholar of his time, who succeeded Heraclas as head of the school. His immense erudition, biblical commentaries (like the Hexapla), and philosophical engagement made him a towering figure, despite later controversies.
Defenders of the faith. Beyond Alexandria, other learned individuals contributed significantly to Christian thought and apologetics:
- Justin Martyr: A philosopher who converted to Christianity and became a leading apologist, defending the faith against pagan and Jewish criticisms.
- Irenaeus of Lyons: A disciple of Polycarp, whose Against Heresies systematically refuted Gnosticism and emphasized apostolic tradition.
- Dionysius of Alexandria: Bishop and scholar, a pupil of Origen, who navigated complex theological debates and persecutions, leaving a rich epistolary legacy.
Preserving and interpreting Scripture. These scholars were instrumental in establishing the canon of Scripture, translating texts, and developing methods of biblical interpretation, ensuring the intellectual vitality and doctrinal purity of the Church. Their efforts provided a robust framework for Christian theology.
6. The Great Persecution and God's Miraculous Deliverance
Everything indeed has been fulfilled in my time; I saw with my own eyes the places of worship thrown down from top to bottom, to the very foundations, the inspired holy Scriptures committed to the flames in the middle of the public squares, and the pastors of the churches hiding disgracefully in one place or another...
Unprecedented scale of suffering. The persecution under Diocletian and his co-rulers, particularly Maximin Daia in the East, was the most severe and systematic in Christian history. It aimed not just to punish individuals but to eradicate Christianity entirely by destroying churches, burning Scriptures, and forcing universal sacrifice.
- Edicts: Decrees ordered the razing of churches, destruction of Scriptures, loss of civil rights for Christians, and imprisonment/torture of clergy.
- Widespread impact: Thousands of believers, from all walks of life, endured horrific tortures and deaths across the Empire, especially in Egypt and the Thebais.
- Imperial household: Even high-ranking imperial servants like Dorotheus and Gorgonius were martyred.
Divine judgment and reversal. Eusebius interprets the subsequent misfortunes of the persecuting emperors—disease, famine, and civil war—as direct divine retribution for their "abominable crimes." The gruesome death of Galerius, who had initiated the persecution, is presented as a clear example of God's justice.
- Galerius's illness: A "suppurative inflammation" and "teeming indescribable mass of worms" led to his death.
- Maximin's downfall: Famine, pestilence, and war with the Armenians plagued his reign, culminating in his defeat by Licinius and a similarly agonizing death.
The recantation. Faced with these calamities, the emperors were compelled to issue edicts of toleration, first by Galerius (311) and then more comprehensively by Constantine and Licinius (313). This dramatic reversal, from intense persecution to official recognition, is portrayed as a "manifest visitation of divine providence," marking the end of an era of suffering and the dawn of peace.
7. Constantine's Triumph and the Peace of the Church
Thus Constantine, an emperor and son of an emperor, a religious man and son of a most religious man, most prudent in every way, as stated above – and Licinius the next in rank, both of them honoured for their wise and religious outlook, two men dear to God – were roused by the King of kings, God of the universe, and Saviour against the two most irreligious tyrants and declared war on them.
God's chosen emperor. Eusebius presents Constantine as God's instrument for delivering the Church from persecution. His victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge (312) is depicted as a divinely orchestrated triumph, with Constantine calling on God for aid and displaying the "saving sign" of Christ.
- Maxentius's defeat: Drowned in the Tiber, mirroring Pharaoh's fate in the Red Sea, a clear sign of divine judgment.
- Constantine's piety: He attributed his victory to God, ordering a trophy of the Saviour's Passion to be erected in Rome.
Restoration and flourishing. The subsequent edicts of toleration by Constantine and Licinius (the "Edict of Milan," 313) granted Christians full freedom of worship, restored confiscated property, and exempted clergy from public duties. This ushered in an era of unprecedented peace and prosperity for the Church.
- Rebuilding churches: Places of worship, once razed, were rebuilt "spacious in plan" and "far surpassing in magnificence" their predecessors.
- Public celebrations: Dedication festivals, convocations of bishops, and joyful gatherings marked the new era, with hymns and praises to God.
- Imperial patronage: Emperors confirmed blessings with ordinances, gifts of money, and personal letters to bishops, demonstrating their "true piety."
A new era of divine favor. The "day bright and radiant" that shone upon the churches signified a profound shift in the relationship between the Roman Empire and Christianity. The Church, once desolate, now blossomed "like a lily," fulfilling ancient prophecies of restoration and divine favor.
8. The Formation and Authority of Christian Scripture
It should be noted that the Canonical Books, according to Hebrew tradition, number twenty-two, like the letters of their alphabet…
Establishing the canon. Eusebius meticulously addresses the question of which Christian writings are authoritative, categorizing them into "Recognized Books," "Disputed Books," and "Spurious Books." This reflects the ongoing process within the early Church to define its sacred texts.
New Testament categories:
- Acknowledged: The four Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Paul's fourteen Epistles (with some debate over Hebrews), 1 John, 1 Peter.
- Disputed: James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John.
- Spurious: Acts of Paul, The Shepherd of Hermas, Revelation of Peter, Epistle of Barnabas, Teachings of the Apostles (Didache), and Revelation of John (if not acknowledged).
- Heretical: Gospels of Peter, Thomas, Matthias, Acts of Andrew, John, and others, rejected for their "irreconcilable" ideas.
Old Testament authority. Eusebius also cites Josephus and Origen on the Hebrew canon, noting the traditional twenty-two books of the Old Testament. This demonstrates a continuity with Jewish tradition while distinguishing Christian acceptance of certain texts.
- Josephus's list: Five books of Moses, thirteen prophetic books, and four containing hymns and precepts.
- Origen's list: Explicitly names the twenty-two books, excluding Maccabees.
Preservation and interpretation. The efforts of scholars like Origen, who mastered Hebrew and compiled the Hexapla to compare different versions of the Old Testament, underscore the Church's commitment to textual accuracy and deep understanding of Scripture. This careful discernment ensured that the "inspired holy Scriptures" remained the foundation of Christian faith and practice.
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