Key Takeaways
1. American Character: Enduring Voluntarism, Not Radical Shifts
With Made in America, Claude S. Fischer draws on decades of historical, psychological, and social research to answer that question by tracking the evolution of American character and culture over three centuries.
Core identity. The fundamental American character, defined by "voluntarism," has remained remarkably consistent over centuries. This isn't about radical individualism, but a unique blend of self-reliance and freely chosen group affiliation. The book argues that rather than undergoing revolutionary changes, American culture has seen its core traits broaden and deepen, incorporating more people into its distinctive framework.
Voluntarism defined. At its heart, voluntarism means individuals are sovereign, unique, and self-reliant, yet achieve their personal goals through chosen communities. This implies a "contractual" relationship with groups: one is free to join or leave, but while belonging, owes loyalty. This framework explains seemingly contradictory American traits like fierce independence alongside strong group loyalty.
Broadening participation. The most significant transformation isn't a change in core values, but the expansion of who gets to fully participate in this "American" way of life. Over time, more individuals—including women, children, and various ethnic and racial groups—gained the means and opportunities to exercise this voluntaristic ethos, moving from exclusion or dependent inclusion to chosen inclusion.
2. Myths Debunked: Challenging Common Narratives of American Decline
Much of what we “know”—and I include many sociologists such as myself in the “we”—is mythical.
Challenging assumptions. Many widely held beliefs about American social history are, in fact, misconceptions. These myths often romanticize the past or exaggerate present-day changes, leading to a distorted view of national character and cultural evolution. The author systematically debunks several of these pervasive narratives.
Common misconceptions:
- Mobility: The belief that contemporary Americans are more mobile than their ancestors is false; people move less now than in the 19th or mid-20th centuries.
- Religion: The notion that Americans have turned away from religion is incorrect; church membership and participation were often lower in past centuries.
- Violence: The idea that life was safer in earlier days is a myth; early Americans faced notably higher risks of criminal violence.
- Work Alienation: The assumption that modern industry alienated workers more than before is largely untrue; many gladly left arduous farm labor for more stimulating jobs.
- Indifference to Needy: The lament that Americans are now indifferent to the needy is unfounded; earlier generations often provided only meager, conditional aid, while modern society offers more comprehensive support.
Historical continuity. These persistent myths often stem from nostalgia or a tendency to view the present as an epochal turning point. Instead, the historical record reveals surprising continuity in many aspects of American life, suggesting that fundamental character traits have persisted, albeit with evolving expressions.
3. Security's Ascent: From Precarious Lives to Planned Futures
Modern Americans lived with far more security and predictability than their ancestors did, even than their presidents did.
Life's precariousness. Early American life was profoundly uncertain, marked by high rates of infant mortality, disease, and violence. Even prominent figures like Abraham Lincoln experienced immense personal loss, with most parents in his era burying at least one child. Chronic pain and debilitating illnesses were commonplace, leading to a fatalistic outlook on life.
Public health triumphs. The 19th and 20th centuries brought dramatic improvements in physical security. Advances in public sanitation, purified water, waste treatment, and later, new drugs and medical care, drastically reduced infectious diseases and extended life spans.
- Life expectancy at birth increased by about 30 years over the 20th century.
- Infant mortality plummeted from over 10% to under 1%.
- Urban areas, once death traps, became safer than rural regions.
- Nutritional improvements, driven by technology and government programs, also contributed significantly.
Confidence and planning. This increased security fostered a profound shift in mentality, leading to greater confidence, a sense of control over one's fate, and a propensity for long-term planning. Americans began to see illness and death as avoidable rather than divinely ordained, influencing decisions like family size and retirement. This growing sense of efficacy, though not without setbacks, reinforced the self-reliant aspect of American voluntarism.
4. Goods Galore: Democratizing Luxury, Not Corrupting Character
Modern Americans are probably no more obsessed with possessions than their ancestors were, but more Americans can aspire to and have more of them.
Ancient desires. Americans have always been enthusiastic consumers, with a "consumer revolution" evident as early as the mid-1700s. Colonial households, even those of modest means, eagerly acquired manufactured goods like chairs, utensils, and mirrors, which were once luxuries. Critics of every era, from Puritan ministers to 20th-century intellectuals, have decried "extravagance" and "conspicuous consumption."
Mass market revolution. The 19th and 20th centuries saw an unprecedented expansion of goods, driven by mass production, improved transportation, and sophisticated marketing. Department stores, mail-order catalogs, and national brands made a vast array of products accessible.
- Automobiles and homeownership became widespread, consuming significant portions of household budgets.
- The real cost of essentials like food and clothing plummeted, freeing up income for "extras."
- Credit became widely available, allowing more Americans to acquire goods before paying in full.
Practical necessity. The proliferation of goods democratized luxury, making items once reserved for the wealthy commonplace and, in many cases, socially necessary. While some critics lament a "luxury fever" or "consumerism," the evidence suggests that Americans' underlying desire for possessions hasn't fundamentally changed. Instead, more people simply gained the means to acquire more, and these goods often served practical purposes, reinforced social bonds (e.g., through gift-giving), and enabled self-expression, aligning with voluntaristic ideals.
5. Community's Evolution: Unfolding, Not Declining, Through Chosen Ties
A more accurate description is the 'unfolding of community.'
Beyond isolation. The popular narrative of a "decline of community," where Americans supposedly moved from cohesive villages to isolated "lonely crowds," is largely a myth. Instead, American community life has undergone a complex "unfolding," characterized by a shift from a few nested, often inherited, groups to a proliferation of diverse, chosen associations.
Diverse affiliations. Early American life, despite calls for unity, often featured scattered homesteads and pragmatic, contractual cooperation rather than organic, tight-knit communities (with Puritans being a notable, but temporary, exception). Over time, Americans increasingly participated in multiple, distinct social groups:
- Families: Evolved from patriarchal structures to more egalitarian, companionate units focused on emotional well-being.
- Churches: Transformed from established authorities to voluntary, competitive denominations, offering both spiritual and social fulfillment.
- Associations: A vast array of clubs, lodges, and reform movements flourished, providing social ties, mutual support, and avenues for civic engagement.
- Workplaces: Emerged as significant sites for social interaction and friendship, separate from home and neighborhood.
Empowered members. This proliferation of groups, coupled with increased security and affluence, gave individuals greater independence and leverage within each association. The "love it or leave it" principle became central: members could choose their affiliations and demand that groups serve their personal needs, rather than being bound by tradition or coercion. This dynamic reinforced American voluntarism, allowing individuals to find both self-reliance and belonging.
6. Public Life's Arc: From Seclusion to Urban Buzz, Then a Homeward Retreat
Over the twentieth century, for more and more Americans, the attractions of private spaces... eventually outpaced the new excitements and enticements of the public spaces.
Early seclusion. For much of the 17th and 18th centuries, most Americans, especially rural men and nearly all women, lived secluded lives with limited interaction with strangers. Public spaces were rare, often confined to local taverns that served as both parochial gathering spots and occasional portals to the wider world. Women, in particular, faced social risks when venturing into public.
Urban mingling. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a dramatic surge in public life. Rapid urbanization, new transportation (streetcars, railroads), and commercial entertainment (department stores, amusement parks, vaudeville, movies) drew millions into bustling city streets and venues.
- Department stores: Became grand public spaces where women could shop, socialize, and be entertained.
- Amusement parks: Offered festive "timeouts" from Victorian constraints, attracting diverse crowds.
- Movies: Became a dominant form of public entertainment, drawing vast audiences.
- Automobiles: Enabled rural families to access urban public spaces more easily.
Homeward bound. This trend reversed in the mid-20th century, as Americans increasingly retreated into private and parochial spaces. Factors contributing to this shift included:
- Suburbanization: The move to low-density housing encouraged home-centered lifestyles.
- Technological comforts: Larger, better-equipped homes with amenities like air conditioning and television made staying in more appealing.
- Fear of crime: Rising urban crime rates and racial tensions in cities prompted many to seek safer, more private environments.
- Television: Revolutionized leisure, drawing people away from public venues and into their homes, fostering a "cocooning" trend.
By the 21st century, while incidental exposure to public spaces remained high (e.g., commuting), Americans increasingly prioritized the comfort and safety of their private and chosen parochial spheres.
7. Political Engagement: A Rollercoaster of Participation, Not Steady Apathy
The arc of Americans’ enthusiasm for politics roughly approximates that of their general engagement in public spaces: peaking sometime in the nineteenth century.
Local roots. Early American politics was characterized by strong localism and deference to a small elite of "gentlemen." Voting participation was low, and local authorities often held significant sway over community life. The American Revolution, however, ignited populist passions and democratic demands, challenging traditional hierarchies.
Populist surge. The 19th century saw a dramatic increase in political participation, fueled by expanding suffrage (for white men), the rise of organized parties, and boisterous election campaigns.
- Jacksonian era: Witnessed a "passion for equality" and the intrusion of popular passions into politics, with elections often resembling riotous carnivals.
- Post-Civil War: Political engagement peaked in the late 19th century, with over three-fourths of eligible voters participating in many elections, driven by intense partisan competition and local issues.
Twentieth-century ebb. After this peak, political participation, particularly voting rates, plummeted in the early 20th century and remained relatively low.
- Progressive reforms: New rules (e.g., literacy tests, secret ballots) aimed at curbing corruption inadvertently disenfranchised poorer and minority voters.
- Reduced incentives: The decline of party machines and patronage jobs removed traditional inducements to vote.
- Social changes: The rise of new public entertainments (movies, sports) diverted attention from politics, and the assimilation of immigrants lessened ethnic-based political fervor.
- Post-1960s decline: A further drop in engagement, especially among young adults, was linked to political traumas (Vietnam, Watergate), economic stagnation, and the pervasive influence of television.
By the 21st century, Americans' political involvement had stabilized at early 20th-century levels, still below the 19th-century peak, reflecting a complex interplay of historical events, institutional changes, and evolving social priorities.
8. Self-Perfection: An Enduring American Project of Character Building
Building character, constructing a better self for which one is 'entirely responsible,' has for centuries been an American project.
Enduring quest. The pursuit of "self-perfection"—the conscious effort to examine, hone, and improve one's character or personality—is a deeply ingrained American tradition. From Benjamin Franklin's meticulous virtue-tracking to modern self-help movements, Americans have consistently embraced the idea that the self is a project to be actively managed and refined.
Sincerity and self-management. In the colonial and 19th centuries, this involved cultivating virtues like honesty, sobriety, piety, and self-discipline, often through diary-keeping and adherence to advice literature. The goal was not just outward conformity but genuine sincerity, though this often led to anxieties about others' authenticity.
- Early advice: Focused on regulating emotional expression and cultivating a "genial, sensitive, informed, and religious" personality.
- Evangelical movements: Emphasized personal regeneration and good works as paths to salvation and a better life.
- Child-rearing: Shifted from strict discipline to "inspiring sentiments" and shaping children's "moral habits."
Authenticity and growth. The 20th century saw this project expand, influenced by new psychological ideas (like Freudianism) and the growth of higher education. The quest for a "real self" and its full expression became prominent, leading to a focus on authenticity and openness. This continuous self-fashioning, while empowering, also brought the burden of "entire responsibility" for one's character, potentially leading to self-obsession or stress.
9. Thinking: More Tools for Calculation, Not a Revolution in Rationality
Modern Americans probably think not all that differently from earlier generations; they are probably no more or less self-interested, clever, or rational.
Beyond simple vs. complex. The notion that modern Americans are inherently more rational, critical, or strategic than their ancestors is largely a misconception. Early Americans, including farmers and merchants, were pragmatic and calculating, even if their methods (like informal ledgers or long-term debts) appear "irrational" by modern standards. The "market revolution" provided more reasons and tools for calculation, rather than fundamentally altering mentality.
Faith's persistence. Despite the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and the rise of scientific education, Americans have not abandoned religious faith.
- Religious belief: Remains remarkably strong, with 80-90% believing in God and many reporting spiritual experiences.
- Skepticism: While some intellectual elites embraced deism or atheism, the general populace maintained faith, often adapting it to emphasize a loving God rather than an inscrutable one.
- Occult beliefs: Belief in the non-Christian supernatural (ghosts, astrology) has persisted and even risen among younger generations.
Cognitive tools. What has changed is Americans' access to a wider range of mental and technical tools that enhance their ability to make informed, systematic decisions.
- Literacy and numeracy: Expanded dramatically through mass schooling.
- Time-consciousness: Increased with industrialization and modern scheduling.
- Technological aids: From bookkeeping methods to computers, these tools facilitate more effective planning and management.
These tools, rather than a fundamental shift in "rationality," have contributed to a greater sense of personal control and efficacy.
10. Emotions: Cultivating Sympathy and Self-Control Amidst Change
Americans increasingly felt affection and tenderness, decreasingly expressed aggression, and generally learned to modulate their negative emotions.
Emotional evolution. Human emotions are not static; their experience and expression are shaped by culture and history. While all humans share basic physiological responses, the "feeling rules"—when, whether, and how to express emotions—have evolved significantly in America. This involved both inhibiting certain feelings and cultivating others.
Sympathy and sentimentality. Beginning in the late 18th century and accelerating through the 19th, middle-class Americans cultivated "sensibility" and "sympathy."
- Romantic love: Became a prerequisite for marriage, leading to more intense expressions of affection between spouses.
- Parental love: Intensified, with parents doting on children and experiencing profound grief at their loss.
- Friendship: Developed into emotionally intense, freestanding relationships, often expressed with romantic language.
- Public compassion: Reform movements (abolition, temperance) appealed to a broader sense of humanitarian sympathy, leading to a revulsion against historically common cruelties (the "civilizing process").
"Cool" yet warm. The 20th century saw a shift towards "American cool," emphasizing emotional restraint and the suppression of hostile or disturbing emotions (like anger and aggression). However, this didn't mean a lack of feeling; rather, it involved cultivating warm emotions like sympathy and empathy in low-key, managed ways. Even the "sexual revolution" of the late 20th century, while increasing openness, was often framed within a context of self-conscious, nuanced, and "sentimental" sexuality, emphasizing intimacy and mutual understanding.
11. Happiness and Choice: A Complex Balance in Modern American Life
The evidence suggests, most generally, no. There were generations... when it seems that the turmoil of social change took some toll. Over the long run, however, were it not for the anxieties that accompany the freedom to be whoever one wants to be, the bookkeepers of happiness would have detected growing joy.
The happiness paradox. Despite dramatic increases in wealth, health, and security over the 20th century, surveys show that average American happiness has remained relatively flat since the 1970s. This "Easterlin Paradox" suggests that beyond a basic level, more money doesn't necessarily equate to more happiness, possibly due to adaptation, rising aspirations, or social comparisons.
The burden of choice. Modern Americans face an unprecedented "republic of choice," with vastly more options in everything from consumer goods to careers, spouses, and even self-identity. While choice is often equated with freedom and well-being, some psychologists argue that a "tyranny of choice" can lead to:
- Poor decisions: People may make illogical or regretted choices.
- Decision fatigue: The sheer volume of options can be overwhelming.
- Regret and anxiety: Over-analyzing choices can lead to dissatisfaction with outcomes.
This suggests that the freedom to choose, while empowering, also carries psychological costs.
Overall well-being. Historical fragments make a definitive history of happiness difficult, but expectations for happiness have certainly risen. While some periods (like the "extended 1960s") saw increased psychological distress, overall rates of serious mental illness likely declined over centuries. The flattening of reported happiness in recent decades may reflect the complexities of managing abundant choices and the anxieties of a highly individualized, voluntaristic society, rather than a fundamental decline in well-being.
12. Voluntarism's Future: Enduring Strengths Face New Challenges
There is no guarantee that the centuries-old direction of social change in America—more security, goods, social life, control, voluntarism—will continue.
Resilient core. The overarching narrative of American history is one of remarkable cultural continuity, centered on "voluntarism"—the unique blend of individual independence and freely chosen, committed fellowship. Despite profound social, economic, and technological transformations, this core character has persisted, adapting to new circumstances rather than being fundamentally altered.
Broadening inclusion. The most significant change has been the expansion of this voluntaristic culture to include more Americans. Over three centuries, individuals previously marginalized or dependent—women, racial minorities, the poor, and youth—gained greater security, wealth, education, and social options. This empowered them to demand autonomy, exercise their rights, and participate more fully in the "American" way of life, shaping their own social bonds and self-identities.
Future uncertainties. While the historical trajectory has largely been one of increasing security, abundance, and voluntarism, recent decades present new challenges.
- Economic inequality: Widening gaps in wealth and education threaten to reverse the trend of inclusion, marginalizing some Americans.
- Social strains: The "extended 1960s" brought significant social turmoil, impacting generations with increased distress and shifts in social attitudes.
- Global challenges: Potential catastrophes like global warming or economic competition could disrupt the long-standing patterns of American good fortune.
The future of American voluntarism, and the extent to which its benefits can continue to expand, remains an open question, dependent on how Americans navigate these evolving circumstances.
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