Fifth Sun

1. Aztec History: A Story of Pragmatism, Not Fatalism

The Aztecs would never recognize themselves in the picture of their world that exists in the books and movies we have made.

Challenging narratives. Traditional portrayals of the Aztecs often depict them as bloodthirsty savages or fatalistic people awaiting divine intervention. However, indigenous historical accounts, particularly the Nahuatl-language annals, reveal a far more complex and pragmatic society. These sources, written by the Aztecs themselves, show a people driven by strategic political maneuvering and a deep commitment to their community's survival, rather than being paralyzed by superstition.

Beyond myth. The widely accepted myth that Moctezuma believed Cortés to be the returning god Quetzalcoatl is a European fabrication, later adopted by indigenous elites seeking to explain their defeat. Contemporary Nahuatl records from the conquest period make no mention of such a belief. Instead, Moctezuma is depicted as a shrewd ruler who meticulously gathered intelligence on the newcomers and made calculated decisions to protect his people and kingdom.

Self-perception. The Aztecs saw themselves as resilient migrants who had overcome adversity to build a powerful civilization. Their origin stories, like that of Nanahuatzin, emphasized courage and self-sacrifice for the collective good, not a morbid obsession with death. They were adaptable and resourceful, constantly striving to secure their place in a dynamic and often dangerous world.

2. The Complex Tapestry of Pre-Conquest Life

To do good, a person had to suppress egotism and do what was best calculated to keep his or her people alive and successful in the long term.

Nuanced morality. Aztec society was not a simple dichotomy of good versus evil. Individuals could be farmers and warriors, poets and slaveholders. Their moral framework prioritized the collective well-being of the altepetl (city-state) above individual desires. Actions were judged by their contribution to the community's long-term survival and prosperity.

Social structure. Society was organized into calpolli (kin-based clans or wards) and divided into pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (commoners). Each group had distinct roles and responsibilities, with the commoners supporting the nobles who, in turn, organized labor and defense. This cellular structure emphasized interdependence and shared duties, ensuring harmony through reciprocal obligations.

Women's roles. Women held respected and complementary roles within society. They were central to household management, agriculture, and textile production, activities recognized as essential for survival. Mothers instilled in their children the values of responsibility, resilience, and the willingness to make sacrifices for the community, reflecting a pragmatic approach to life's challenges.

3. Polygyny: The Engine of Aztec Politics

The system can work well only when the vast majority of people fully agree as to which wife is primary—that is, when they all think alike as to whose sons should inherit.

Political alliances. Polygyny, the practice of having multiple wives, was a fundamental aspect of elite Aztec politics. Chiefs often married women from different city-states to forge alliances, and the status of a wife's lineage directly influenced the political standing of her children. This system created a complex web of interdependencies and rivalries among noble families.

Succession dynamics. While polygyny ensured a plentiful supply of potential heirs, it also fueled intense factionalism. Disputes over which son should inherit the tlatoani (king) position, often based on the mother's status, frequently led to civil wars. These internal conflicts could destabilize entire regions, as rival half-brothers sought support from their maternal kin's city-states.

Strategic maneuvering. Leaders like Itzcoatl skillfully exploited these polygyny-induced fissures to rise to power. By allying with disaffected factions or those currently losing in succession struggles, they could dramatically shift the political landscape. The "Triple Alliance" itself was a product of such strategic maneuvering, uniting Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan after the fall of Azcapotzalco.

4. Tenochtitlan: A City of Beauty and Brutality

The people who lived in Tenochtitlan were convinced that they had built something worth protecting for whatever time on earth they could.

Urban marvel. By the late 1400s, Tenochtitlan had transformed from a marshy island settlement into a magnificent city. Its planned layout featured straight avenues, impressive pyramids, lush gardens, and sophisticated aqueducts. The city's wealth, derived from tribute and trade, supported a thriving artisan class and a vibrant cultural life, including music, dance, and poetry.

Imperial control. Moctezuma the Younger, in particular, sought to establish a centralized state apparatus, extending direct control over conquered territories through administrative provinces and permanent garrisons. This bureaucratic organization ensured timely tribute collection and upheld Mexica notions of law and justice, particularly regarding landholding. The city's markets, like the massive one at Tlatelolco, were meticulously regulated, showcasing a vast array of goods and services.

The dark side. The grandeur of Tenochtitlan was sustained by increasingly draconian measures and ritualized violence. Human sacrifice, while rooted in religious belief, also served as a terrifying political tool, especially against recalcitrant subject states. Prisoners of war were often brought to the city not just for ritual killing, but to witness the spectacles and carry tales of Mexica power back to their people, ensuring compliance through fear.

5. Conquest: A Clash of Technologies and Alliances

The Mexica did not believe that the god Quetzalcoatl walked among them, nor were they impressed by a vision of Mary or one of the saints.

Pragmatic assessment. Moctezuma and his council were not naive or fatalistic upon Cortés's arrival. Their extensive intelligence network provided detailed reports on the strangers' weaponry, tactics, and internal conflicts. Moctezuma's initial strategy was to offer tribute to convince the Spaniards to leave, recognizing their military superiority and the political instability a direct confrontation would cause within his empire.

Technological imbalance. The Spaniards possessed a decisive technological advantage:

• Metal weaponry: Steel swords, lances, and armor shattered indigenous stone and obsidian weapons.
• Firearms: Harquebuses and small cannons inflicted mass casualties from a distance.
• Horses: Cavalry charges were devastating against foot soldiers, creating psychological terror and tactical advantage.
• Ships: Brigantines on Lake Texcoco allowed rapid movement and siege capabilities.
  The Aztecs quickly analyzed these advantages, but could not replicate them.

Strategic alliances. Cortés's success was heavily reliant on indigenous allies, particularly the Tlaxcalans, who harbored deep resentment against the Mexica. Malintzin, a Nahua slave who became Cortés's translator, played a crucial role in brokering these alliances, leveraging existing political grievances. The conquest was not a simple Spanish victory, but a complex indigenous civil war with European intervention.

6. Disease: The Unseen Conqueror

La viruela had come aboard one of Narváez’s ships as an invisible passenger, perhaps in a scab in a blanket.

Devastating impact. The smallpox epidemic, introduced by the Europeans, was a catastrophic factor in the conquest. Indigenous populations had no prior exposure or immunity to the disease, leading to widespread death. The first major outbreak struck Tenochtitlan shortly after the Spaniards were expelled in 1520, decimating the city's population and leadership, including the new tlatoani Cuitlahuac.

Biological warfare (unintentional). While unintentional, the disease acted as a powerful biological weapon, weakening indigenous resistance at critical moments. The Spaniards, largely immune due to prior exposure, were able to regroup and launch their final assault on a city already ravaged by illness and starvation. This biological advantage was a product of millennia of Old World agricultural and trade networks.

Long-term consequences. The epidemics continued for decades, with subsequent waves of disease further reducing the indigenous population across New Spain. This demographic collapse had profound social, economic, and political consequences, leading to labor shortages, the abandonment of lands, and increased vulnerability to Spanish exploitation.

7. Indigenous Resilience: Adapting to a New World

They could not turn the tide of power, he reminded them; they should salvage what they could of their lives.

Pragmatic survival. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, indigenous leaders like Chimalpopoca of Cuauhtinchan quickly assessed the new reality. They understood that direct military confrontation with the Spaniards was often futile. Instead, they focused on negotiating favorable terms, preserving their communities, and adapting to the new colonial system. This often meant accepting baptism and participating in Spanish legal and administrative structures.

Cultural synthesis. Indigenous peoples selectively adopted elements of Spanish culture while retaining core aspects of their own.

• Literacy: Learning the Roman alphabet became a powerful tool for recording their histories, managing community affairs, and engaging with the Spanish legal system.
• New technologies: They quickly learned European construction techniques, shipbuilding, and adapted to new animals and crops.
• Religious syncretism: While outwardly converting to Christianity, many integrated Christian deities and rituals with their traditional beliefs, creating a unique blend of spiritual practices.

Legal resistance. When faced with injustices, indigenous communities often turned to Spanish courts. They learned to navigate the legal system, presenting their cases, calling witnesses, and using written documents to defend their land rights and protest excessive tribute demands. This legal activism demonstrated their continued agency and determination to protect their interests.

8. The Power of the Written Word: Preserving a Vanishing Past

"It will never be forgotten," Chimalpahin said. "It will always be preserved."

Chimalpahin's mission. Don Domingo Chimalpahin, a Nahua historian from Chalco, dedicated his life in the late 16th and early 17th centuries to meticulously recording his people's history. Witnessing the decline of indigenous populations and the fading memory of pre-conquest life, he feared a collective amnesia. His monumental work, primarily in Nahuatl, aimed to preserve the complex narrative of the Nahuas for future generations.

The annals tradition. Chimalpahin's work built upon the ancient xiuhpohualli (year count) tradition, where history was recited orally, often guided by pictorial texts. He adapted this by transcribing these oral performances into the Roman alphabet, creating detailed, year-by-year accounts. He collected genealogies, stories, and legal documents, weaving together multiple perspectives from different altepetls.

A legacy for posterity. Chimalpahin envisioned his readers as future indigenous Christians who, though living in a changed world, would still seek to understand their ancestors. He provided context, explained old terms, and even critiqued Spanish injustices, subtly asserting the enduring value of Nahua knowledge and identity. His writings, along with those of others like Tezozomoc, became invaluable archives, defying the oblivion that conquest threatened.

9. Colonial Realities: Resistance, Injustice, and Survival

They kept it inside, no one dared to make it public.

Hidden suffering. Despite outward compliance, indigenous communities faced immense pressure and injustice under Spanish rule. The imposition of new taxes, forced labor drafts, and the erosion of traditional governance structures led to widespread poverty and resentment. While open rebellion was often suppressed brutally, as seen in the Mexico City riots of 1564, much of the resistance and suffering remained unspoken, "kept inside."

Racialized hierarchy. The colonial system established a rigid racial hierarchy, with Spaniards at the top, followed by mestizos, Africans, and indigenous peoples. This system led to racialized violence and discrimination, as exemplified by the torture of don Martín Cortés (Cortés's mestizo son) and the mass execution of black individuals in 1612. These events highlighted the vulnerability of non-Spanish populations to arbitrary power.

Internal divisions. Spanish authorities often exploited existing indigenous rivalries or created new ones to maintain control. They sometimes encouraged commoners to accuse their own nobility of corruption, or pitted different altepetls against each other. This strategy aimed to prevent a unified indigenous front and redirect anger away from the colonial government.

10. Enduring Legacy: The Aztecs Live On

And yet, for every Nahuatl speaker who writes defiant poems, there is another who lives in poverty so oppressive that poetry is out of the question.

Cultural continuity. Despite centuries of colonial rule, epidemics, and economic exploitation, indigenous identity in Mexico never truly died. The Spanish "two republics" system, while flawed, allowed many native communities to maintain their languages, traditions, and local governance structures. Intermarriage with Africans also led to a significant Afro-indigenous population that often identified as Indian.

Reclaiming heritage. In the post-colonial era, particularly after the Mexican Revolution, indigenous heritage became a source of national pride. Figures like Emiliano Zapata, a Nahuatl speaker, symbolized indigenous resistance and self-determination. Modern indigenous movements continue to fight for their rights, land, and cultural preservation, drawing strength from their deep history.

A living language. Today, over a million Mexicans still speak Nahuatl. Contemporary Nahua intellectuals, artists, and writers are actively engaged in promoting their language and culture, creating new scholarship, literature, and art. They challenge the idea of a static past, envisioning a dynamic future where their traditions continue to evolve, perhaps under a "Sixth Sun."

Last updated: November 23, 2025