Conversations of Socrates

1. Socrates' Unconventional Defense and Acceptance of Fate

He had already decided that for him death was preferable to life.

A life's preparation. Socrates approached his trial not with fear, but with a profound sense of purpose, believing his entire life of blameless conduct was his best defense. He saw his impending death not as a tragedy, but as a divinely ordained release from the inevitable decline of old age, a period he deemed "intolerable and devoid of pleasure." This perspective allowed him to maintain an "arrogant tone" during his trial, as he was convinced that dying at that moment was the best outcome for him.

Divine guidance. Central to Socrates' composure was his "divine" inner voice, which he claimed had twice opposed his attempts to prepare a conventional defense. He interpreted this as a sign that the gods favored his death, releasing him "not only at exactly the right age, but also in the easiest way possible." This conviction gave him the strength to refuse to beg for his life or propose a counter-penalty, choosing instead to uphold his principles even unto death.

Noble end. Socrates' acceptance of his fate was not born of despair, but of a reasoned belief that he was securing a noble and easy death, free from the physical and mental deterioration of old age. He faced his execution with cheerfulness and fortitude, leaving behind a legacy of integrity and wisdom. His final words and demeanor were a testament to his conviction that he had lived a life of virtue and would be remembered for benefiting all he conversed with.

2. Piety as Adherence to Divine and State Law

Socrates both acted on this principle himself and urged others to do so; and he thought that those who acted otherwise were acting excessively and foolishly.

Conforming to custom. Socrates was accused of not recognizing the gods of the State and introducing new deities, yet Xenophon argues he was the most devout of men. He regularly sacrificed at public altars and home, and his "divine voice" was merely his interpretation of divine communication, akin to others consulting oracles or omens. He believed in following the "law of the land" for religious observances, seeing deviation as "excessive and foolish."

Universal belief. Socrates pointed out that belief in divine foresight and communication was universal, whether through bird-calls, utterances, or oracles. His unique claim was simply that "the divine does the communicating" directly to him, which he considered "more accurate and more devout" than attributing power to mere birds. He consistently demonstrated the reliability of these warnings to his friends, proving his trust in the gods.

Gods' omnipresence. Socrates believed the gods were omniscient and omnipresent, aware of all human thoughts and actions, and that they cared for humanity. He argued that the order and design of the universe, the provision of senses, and the gift of reason were all evidence of divine providence. This belief encouraged his associates to act virtuously even in private, knowing "none of their actions could ever escape the knowledge of the gods."

3. True Goodness (Kalokagathia) as the Ultimate Goal

Without it, who could either learn anything good or practise it to a degree worth mentioning?

Defining excellence. For Xenophon's Socrates, "true goodness" (kalokagathia) was the pinnacle of human excellence, encompassing a blend of moral and practical virtues. It was not merely about external qualities or wealth, but about an inner state that manifested in effective action and beneficial relationships. This ideal was the constant focus of his teachings and the aspiration he instilled in his companions.

Qualities of the truly good: A truly good person, like Socrates, possessed several key attributes:

• Freedom through self-discipline: Mastery over desires, not external circumstances.
• Knowledge and education: Understanding what is beneficial and how to act effectively.
• Effective social skills: Ability to make and keep good friends, and to benefit them.
• Competent management: Skill in managing one's estate, and by extension, the state.
• Traditional virtues: Wisdom, justice, self-control, and piety.
• Ability to teach: Inspiring others towards the same ideal.

Practical application. Socrates demonstrated that true goodness was not an abstract concept but a practical way of living that led to a confident, secure, and fulfilling life. He showed that these qualities were interconnected, with self-discipline forming the bedrock upon which all other virtues and practical successes were built. His aim was to make his associates "truly good men and to be able to behave properly towards their family, servants, relatives and friends, their State and their fellow citizens."

4. Self-Discipline as the Foundation of Freedom and Virtue

I have always thought that to need nothing is divine, and to need as little as possible is the nearest approach to the divine.

Mastering desires. Socrates viewed self-discipline as the cornerstone of a virtuous life, essential for both individual freedom and effective action. He argued that those enslaved by physical appetites—for food, drink, sex, or sleep—were not truly free, but rather subject to the "worst masters." This lack of control prevented them from pursuing what was truly beneficial and often compelled them to act disgracefully.

Path to happiness. Far from being a deprivation, self-discipline was presented as the true path to pleasure and happiness. By enduring hunger, thirst, or sleeplessness until the moment of maximum enjoyment, one could derive greater satisfaction from life's necessities. Moreover, it enabled individuals to pursue higher goals, such as acquiring knowledge, managing their affairs efficiently, and serving their friends and country, leading to profound contentment and respect.

Socrates' example. Socrates embodied this principle, demonstrating remarkable self-control in his own life. He lived on meager resources, was tolerant of physical hardships, and resisted temptations with ease. His personal example, more than any theoretical argument, inspired his companions to cultivate self-discipline, showing them that it was not only achievable but also the most "supremely good" quality a person could possess.

5. The Primacy of Knowledge and Reason in All Endeavors

Only the self-disciplined have the capacity to consider what are the best objects of action and, by both theoretically and practically categorizing good and bad, to choose the former and abstain from the latter.

Expertise in action. Socrates consistently emphasized that knowledge and reason were paramount for success in any field, from carpentry to generalship, and especially in the art of living well. He believed that effective action stemmed from understanding what needed to be done, how, and when. Without this knowledge, even effort could be futile or detrimental, leading to mistakes and misfortune.

Self-knowledge is key. The most crucial form of knowledge was "know yourself." Socrates argued that self-knowledge enabled individuals to understand their own capabilities and limitations, guiding them to undertake tasks they could succeed in and avoid those they could not. This self-awareness was essential for making beneficial choices, assessing others accurately, and navigating life's challenges effectively.

Wisdom as virtue. Socrates equated wisdom with prudence and all other moral virtues. He believed that those who truly understood what was good and right would invariably choose to act accordingly, while ignorance led to wrongdoing. This intellectualist approach meant that virtue was teachable and learnable, making the pursuit of knowledge a moral imperative for anyone aspiring to be "truly good."

6. Challenging Illusory Knowledge and Conventional Thinking

Most people, when they are set upon looking into other people’s affairs, never turn to examine themselves.

Exposing conceit. Socrates' method involved relentlessly questioning those who claimed to possess knowledge, particularly about moral and political matters, to expose the superficiality of their understanding. He believed that many people operated under the "illusion that they know anything important," often relying on unexamined societal norms (nomos) rather than reasoned thought. His aim was to rid people of this conceit, making them aware of their own ignorance as the first step towards genuine learning.

Critique of the status quo. He challenged conventional practices, such as appointing political leaders by lot, arguing that expertise, not chance, should dictate positions of responsibility. He likened this to entrusting a ship to a randomly chosen pilot, highlighting the absurdity of such a system in critical public affairs. This critical stance, while aimed at improving society, was often perceived as subversive, especially by those whose authority rested on tradition rather than competence.

Dangerous wisdom. Socrates' intellectual probing, though intended to foster self-improvement and rational governance, was seen as a threat to the established order. His accusers leveraged this perception, portraying him as someone who "corrupted the young" by encouraging them to question authority and traditional values. Yet, for Socrates, this questioning was not about undermining, but about building a more reasoned and virtuous foundation for individual and collective life.

7. The Art of Friendship and Mutual Benefit

A good friend sets himself to supply all his friend’s deficiencies, whether of private property or of public service.

Valuing true friends. Socrates observed that people often prioritized material possessions over friendships, despite acknowledging that "a good and sure friend was the best of all possessions." He argued that a true friend was invaluable, offering loyalty, support, and practical assistance in all aspects of life, from personal needs to public service. He criticized the negligence with which many treated their friends, contrasting it with the care given to property or even slaves.

Cultivating goodwill. He taught that friendship was not a passive state but an active pursuit, requiring effort and reciprocal kindness. To win a friend, one must first be a friend, demonstrating care, reliability, and a willingness to help. He used analogies like inviting someone to dinner or caring for their property to illustrate that "you know all the magic spells that influence human conduct" through acts of generosity and consideration.

Beyond utility. While emphasizing the practical benefits of friendship, Socrates also highlighted its moral dimension. He believed that "truly good people" were drawn to each other, fostering relationships based on shared virtue, mutual respect, and a desire for each other's well-being. Such friendships were enduring, providing pleasure, support, and a context for continuous moral improvement, making them far superior to any material possession.

8. Estate Management as a Microcosm of Good Governance

The difference between the care of private and the care of public affairs is only one of degree; in all other respects they are closely similar, especially in that neither can dispense with human agency, and the human agents are the same in both cases.

Science of the household. Socrates defined estate-management as a branch of knowledge focused on "knowing how to make use of assets so that they are profitable." He extended the concept of an "estate" beyond mere physical property to include anything useful to an individual, even friends and, paradoxically, enemies if one could derive benefit from them. This holistic view underscored that effective management applied to all aspects of life, not just finances.

Self-management first. The ability to manage an estate effectively was directly linked to an individual's self-discipline. Socrates argued that those enslaved by their own appetites—laziness, gluttony, or costly ambitions—were incapable of managing external affairs. Just as one must fight for freedom from external enslavers, one must fight for self-control against internal "mistresses" that prohibit beneficial activity and squander resources.

Analogy to the state. Xenophon frequently drew parallels between managing a household and governing a state or leading an army. The principles of organization, resource allocation, motivating subordinates, and ensuring loyalty were seen as universally applicable. A good estate-manager, by cultivating these skills, was implicitly training for broader leadership roles, demonstrating that personal virtue and practical competence were foundational for all forms of governance.

9. Agriculture as a Source of Virtue and Prosperity

It is plausible to claim that the practice of agriculture is simultaneously a source of pleasant living, of increasing one’s estate, and of training the body for being able to do everything a free man ought to be able to do.

Nature's classroom. Xenophon, through Socrates and the exemplary Ischomachus, lauded agriculture as the "mother and nurse of all other arts" and the finest pursuit for a "truly good person." It was seen not just as a means of livelihood but as a powerful moral training ground. Farming demanded:

• Endurance: Facing winter cold and summer heat.
• Diligence: Waking early, exerting oneself physically.
• Responsibility: Overseeing labor, managing resources.
• Justice: Rewarding good work, punishing idleness.

Holistic benefits. Agriculture offered a unique blend of physical, mental, and moral advantages. It kept the body healthy and strong, provided ample opportunity for reflection, and fostered a sense of connection to the divine through reliance on natural cycles. It also prepared citizens for military service, as farmers were accustomed to hard work and defending their land, making them ideal contributors to the community's defense.

Simplicity and profit. Despite its profound benefits, agriculture was presented as "the easiest to learn" of all arts, requiring keen observation and common sense rather than complex technical skills. The key to success lay not in specialized knowledge, but in diligent application and responsible management. Ischomachus's father, for instance, profited by buying neglected land and improving it, demonstrating that hard work and a love for farming could transform barrenness into prosperity.

10. Love (Eros) as a Path to Intellectual and Moral Growth

I want to show him evidence that love for the mind is much better than physical love.

Celestial vs. Common Aphrodite. Socrates distinguished between two forms of love: "physical love," inspired by the Common Aphrodite, and "love of the mind," inspired by the Celestial Aphrodite. He argued that while physical attraction was fleeting and often led to debauchery and shame, love for the mind was enduring, pure, and conducive to mutual improvement. This intellectual love was the focus of his own relationships with his young male followers.

Mutual elevation. Love for the mind fostered a relationship where both parties, particularly the older and younger, acted as both master and pupil. They taught each other "to say and do what they ought" and instilled "true goodness." This form of love was characterized by:

• Lasting affection: Growing stronger as the mind progressed in wisdom.
• Reciprocity: Based on mutual admiration and concern for each other's well-being.
• Moral imperative: Compelling the lover to cultivate goodness in themselves to inspire it in their beloved.

Beyond physical beauty. Socrates playfully engaged in a "beauty contest" with Critobulus, arguing that his own physical ugliness was, in fact, more beautiful due to its functionality (e.g., projecting eyes for wider vision). This served to underscore his belief that physical appearance was trivial compared to the beauty of character and intellect. He used the erotic nature of the master-pupil relationship to channel desire towards philosophical and moral development, transforming mere attraction into a powerful force for virtue.

11. The Master's Eye: Leadership Through Presence and Motivation

The master’s eye is the most effective way of producing good work.

Inspiring obedience. Socrates and Ischomachus agreed that effective leadership, whether in agriculture, politics, or warfare, hinged on the ability to inspire willing obedience and enthusiasm in subordinates. This was achieved not through coercion, but by demonstrating competence, fostering loyalty, and providing clear incentives. The "master's eye" symbolized the leader's active presence, scrutiny, and ability to motivate.

Qualities of a strong commander. A truly effective leader possessed a unique "kingly quality" that transcended mere knowledge or physical prowess. This quality enabled them to:

• Instill shame: Making subordinates ashamed of dishonorable actions.
• Promote pride: Encouraging pride in obedience and diligent work.
• Cultivate enthusiasm: Inspiring a love of work and a desire to excel.
• Command loyalty: Earning trust and willingness to follow through any danger.

Divine gift and training. While acknowledging that some individuals possessed a greater natural flair for leadership, Ischomachus suggested that this "kingly quality" also required training and divine favor. It was granted to "true initiates in self-discipline," implying that inner mastery was a prerequisite for commanding others. Such leaders, who could use their "mind rather than physical might for great achievements," were deemed invaluable for both private estates and the state.

Last updated: November 29, 2025