Chimpanzee Politics

1. Chimpanzee Politics Mirrors Human Society

I put for a generall inclination of all mankind, a perpetuall and restlesse desire of Power after power, that ceaseth onely in Death.

Universal political drives. Frans de Waal's groundbreaking work at the Arnhem Zoo reveals that the intricate power struggles, alliances, and social manipulations observed in chimpanzee colonies are strikingly similar to human politics. This challenges the traditional view that such complex social behaviors are unique to our species, suggesting instead a shared evolutionary heritage. The book argues that if politics is defined as determining "who gets what, when, and how," then chimpanzees are undeniably political animals.

Beyond anthropomorphism. While some scientists shy away from attributing intentions and emotions to animals, de Waal embraces the concept of "anthropomorphism in its purest form" to describe chimpanzee personalities. He argues that denying animals an inner life or complex social motivations is a disservice, especially when their behaviors so clearly reflect human-like traits. The discomfort many feel when confronted with these similarities, he suggests, is a "nervous reaction" to seeing ourselves reflected in the ape mirror.

A new perspective. By meticulously documenting the daily lives of the Arnhem chimpanzees, de Waal provides a detailed "historiography" of their social drama. This approach, focusing on individual personalities and actual events rather than abstract categorizations, allows readers to recognize the fundamental similarities between ape and human social dynamics. The book's title itself, "Chimpanzee Politics," deliberately drives home the point that the roots of our political activity are older than humanity.

2. Individual Personalities Drive Group Dynamics

Chimpanzees have outspoken personalities. Their faces are full of character, and you can distinguish them one from another just as easily as you can distinguish people.

Unique characters. Each chimpanzee in the Arnhem colony possesses a distinct personality, influencing their interactions and roles within the group. De Waal emphasizes that understanding these individual differences—whether an ape is "self-assured," "calculating," "playful," or "timid"—is crucial for making sense of the complex social drama that unfolds. This focus on individual identity, rather than just species-typical behavior, was a significant departure from conventional ethology.

Impact on social roles. The book introduces key figures like Mama, the respected matriarch; Yeroen, the calculating former alpha male; Luit, the sociable and elegant challenger; and Nikkie, the energetic and acrobatic "country bumpkin" who acts as a catalyst for change. Even seemingly minor characters like Puist, "the Madam" with her unfeminine alliances, or Dandy, the intellectual but physically smaller male, play specific, influential roles that shape the group's political landscape.

Beyond numbers. De Waal recounts how early primatologists, particularly the Japanese, recognized the importance of individual identification, even if they initially used number codes. He argues that humans naturally think in terms of named personalities, and that ignoring this aspect in animal studies leads to a superficial understanding. The detailed character sketches bring the chimpanzees to life, making their political maneuvers relatable and engaging.

3. Dominance is Dynamic, Coalitional, and Negotiated

The stability of the group is slowly undermined. Each individual has his or her role to play in this web of intrigues.

Fluid hierarchies. Unlike many other animal species where dominance hierarchies are rigid, chimpanzee society exhibits a "flexible" and "plastic" structure. Power is not solely determined by individual strength but by a complex interplay of alliances, social influence, and strategic maneuvering. This means that even a powerful alpha male can be challenged and dethroned, and incidental reversals in the social hierarchy are not uncommon.

Coalitions are key. The book vividly illustrates how coalitions are the "political instrument par excellence" for power shifts. The first takeover saw Luit, with Nikkie's indirect help, isolate and dethrone Yeroen. Later, Yeroen and Nikkie formed a "closed coalition" to jointly unseat Luit. These alliances are not always based on friendship but often on opportunistic calculations, demonstrating that "who supports whom" is a dynamic and critical factor in determining who holds power.

Formal vs. real dominance. De Waal distinguishes between "formal dominance," indicated by submissive "greeting" rituals (pant-grunts, bowing, kissing feet), and "real dominance," which reflects actual social influence and the outcome of conflicts. While these often overlap, a leader's position can become untenable if their real power wanes, leading to a cessation of greetings and a challenge to the established order. The "greeting" ritual, though rigid, can become a "hollow formality" before a power shift.

4. Strategic Intelligence Shapes Power Plays

Great apes, in particular, behave so flexibly that we get the im pression that they know exactly how others will react, and what they can achieve as a result.

Beyond instinct. Chimpanzees exhibit "intelligent social manipulation," using signals as instruments to influence others rather than merely reacting instinctively. Examples like Tepel waking Mama to arbitrate a children's quarrel, or Yeroen feigning injury only when Nikkie could see him, suggest a capacity for purposeful, calculated action. This goes beyond simple conditioning, implying an ability to combine past experiences to devise novel solutions.

Foresight and planning. De Waal explores the concept of "strategic intelligence," questioning whether chimpanzees can "look into the future" and plan their actions. While direct proof is elusive, behaviors like Franje collecting straw for a nest before feeling the cold, or Gorilla making a detour to "say goodbye" before separation, hint at an ability to anticipate future events. Experimental evidence, such as Julia the chimpanzee solving multi-step key-and-box puzzles, further supports their capacity for future-oriented thinking and planning.

The "Social Intelligence Hypothesis." This hypothesis posits that the high intelligence of primates, including humans, evolved primarily to navigate increasingly complex social lives. Technical inventiveness, in this view, is a secondary development. Chimpanzees excel at outsmarting rivals, detecting deception, forming compromises, and fostering advantageous social ties. This suggests that the "lust for power" and the strategies to achieve it are deeply ingrained, even if the planning process itself might be subconscious.

5. Female Influence is Crucial for Social Stability

Mama fulfils a central role in the group. Apart from her stabilizing and conciliatory influence, she is also the leader of collective female power. None of the males can ignore her.

Matriarchal power. While males dominate the formal hierarchy, females, particularly older ones like Mama, wield significant "collective female power." Mama's influence is so profound that even adult males turn to her during peak tensions, and she can lead the entire group, including males, in chasing away an aggressor. Her ability to mobilize other females makes her a force that no male can afford to ignore.

Stabilizing role. Females often act as mediators in male conflicts, restoring peace and cohesion to the group. They have a vested interest in social stability, especially for raising their offspring. This is evident in their "loser-supporter" tendencies, where they often side with the weaker party to prevent conflicts from escalating. This "control role" of the alpha male, often supported by females, is crucial for maintaining order and preventing excessive aggression.

Beyond physical strength. Females, despite being physically smaller than males, can exert influence in subtle ways. They can take objects or preferred sitting spots from males without resistance, suggesting a form of "precedence" based on male tolerance. This tolerance might stem from the males' need for female support and popularity to maintain their leadership, indicating that females bring "weapons other than physical strength to the battlefield," such as "sexual and political favors, and their silent diplomacy."

6. Sexual Privileges are Tied to Rank and Bargaining

There is a definite link between power and sex; no social organization can be properly understood without knowledge of the sexual rules and the way the progeny are cared for.

Dominance and reproduction. In chimpanzee society, a male's rank directly correlates with his mating frequency. High-ranking males, like Yeroen in his prime, can monopolize estrus females, often accounting for the vast majority of copulations. This "droit du seigneur" drives male ambition, as greater mating success translates into more progeny, reinforcing the hereditary tendency for power-seeking.

Covert mating and "telling tales." Lower-ranking males, unable to openly compete, resort to secretive mating strategies, often making "dates" with females away from the alpha male's gaze. Females also play a role in this evasion, sometimes refusing open invitations from certain males only to mate with them covertly. The phenomenon of "telling tales," where a male alerts the alpha to a rival's clandestine mating, highlights the awareness of these unspoken sexual rules.

Sexual bargaining. Mating access is not always a simple matter of dominance; it can also be a result of "transaction" and "bargaining." Males may engage in extensive grooming sessions with rivals to "soothe away resistance" and gain temporary approval for sexual contact. This "price" for peace, even paid by the alpha male, demonstrates that sexual access is a negotiated privilege, influenced by the complex balance of power and the need for social reciprocity.

7. Triadic Awareness Underpins Complex Social Maneuvers

The term triadic awareness refers to the capacity to perceive social relationships between others so as to form varied triangular relationships.

Understanding relationships. Chimpanzees possess "triadic awareness," meaning they not only understand their own relationships with others but also monitor and evaluate the relationships between other individuals. This sophisticated social knowledge is fundamental for forming coalitions, mediating conflicts, and engaging in complex political strategies. For example, Luit knows that Yeroen and Nikkie are allies, influencing his behavior towards Yeroen when Nikkie is present.

Beyond egocentric knowledge. This capacity goes beyond simply reacting to direct interactions. It involves "non-egocentric social knowledge," where an individual can observe interactions between two others (B and C) and understand the implications of their relationship for their own (A's) interactions with B and C. This allows for nuanced responses, such as Amber intervening in a conflict between Franje and Jimmie by returning a child to its rightful mother, demonstrating an understanding of kinship and ownership.

Foundation for politics. Without triadic awareness, many of the observed chimpanzee behaviors—like separating interventions (breaking up rival alliances), telling tales (reporting on rivals), and complex coalition formations—would be impossible. It enables them to navigate a multi-layered social world where influence is not just about individual strength but about understanding the intricate web of alliances and rivalries that define the group.

8. Leadership Requires a Balancing Act of Power and Protection

An alpha male who fails to protect the females and children cannot expect help in repulsing potential rivals. This would suggest that the control role of the alpha male is not so much a favor as a duty: his position depends on it.

The control role. A stable alpha male, like Luit after his initial takeover, often adopts a "control role," acting as a "champion of peace and security." This involves impartially breaking up fights, especially among females, and often supporting the "loser" to prevent escalation. This behavior is not purely altruistic; it strengthens the leader's ties with the females and children, securing their support against potential rivals and stabilizing his position.

Noblesse oblige. The concept of "noblesse oblige" applies to chimpanzee leaders: they must be "generous to be respected." This generosity extends beyond material sharing (like distributing leaves or meat) to social favors, such as providing protection. A leader who collects support and prestige must redistribute it in the form of social security, otherwise, his position is jeopardized. This system of "collection and redistribution" of social favors mirrors human economic and political structures.

Vulnerability of power. Despite their dominance, alpha males are not absolute dictators. Their power is often dependent on the support of others, making them vulnerable to shifts in alliances. Nikkie's leadership, for instance, was precarious because he relied heavily on Yeroen's support and faced resistance from females. This highlights that even at the top, a leader must constantly manage relationships, balance competing interests, and adapt their policies to maintain influence.

9. Reciprocity Governs Social Exchange and Justice

The two basic rules are "one good turn deserves another" and "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth."

Give and take. Chimpanzee social life operates on a fundamental principle of reciprocity, encompassing both positive and negative exchanges. This "give-and-take mechanism" is evident in various behaviors:

• Positive reciprocity: Coalitions (A supports B, B supports A), non-intervention alliances (A remains neutral if B does the same), and sexual bargaining (A tolerates B mating after B has groomed A).
• Negative reciprocity: Punishing individuals who previously acted against them, even hours or days later, as seen when Mama retaliated against Oor for instigating an attack.

Remembering interactions. The ability to engage in reciprocity requires remembering past social interactions, including who helped whom, who was hostile, and who owes a favor. While much of this may occur subconsciously, de Waal notes that "things come bubbling up to the surface when the difference between costs and benefits becomes too great," leading to overt expressions of feelings or actions.

Sense of justice. The book suggests that chimpanzees might even possess a rudimentary "sense of moral rightness and justice." An example is Puist's furious attack on Luit after he failed to protect her from Nikkie, despite her having supported Luit earlier. This implies an expectation of reciprocal aid, and a strong reaction when that expectation is violated, much like in human social contracts.

10. The Price of Peace: Reconciliation and Formalization

I believe that the social significance of this behavior cannot be overemphasized. It almost certainly plays a crucial role as a constructive counterbalance to forces that threaten to disrupt the life of the group.

Healing divisions. Reconciliation, often involving intense kissing, embracing, and grooming between former opponents, is a vital mechanism for restoring harmony after conflicts. This behavior, observed across many primate species, serves to repair valuable relationships and prevent group dissolution. The intensity of post-conflict contact, often exceeding normal friendly interactions, underscores its importance in maintaining social cohesion.

Formalizing status. Reconciliation also plays a role in formalizing dominance shifts. After a power struggle, the winner may refuse contact until the loser offers a submissive "greeting," effectively blackmailing them into acknowledging the new hierarchy. This "bend or break" dynamic ensures that the new status is formally recognized, paving the way for a more relaxed relationship and reducing future conflict.

Stability through ritual. The establishment of a stable hierarchy, often cemented by these reconciliation rituals and formal greetings, is a "guarantee of peace and harmony." De Waal's data shows a significantly higher risk of violence during periods when formal dominance relations are disrupted. These rituals, therefore, act as a "cohesive factor," putting limits on competition and conflict, and allowing for other essential social activities like child care, play, and cooperation to thrive.