White Gold

1. The Barbary Corsairs: A Century of Terror on European Shores

For more than a century, the trade in white slaves from across Europe and colonial North America had been destroying families and wrecking innocent lives.

Widespread depredations. In the early 17th century, Islamic corsairs from Barbary—Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Salé—launched devastating raids across European coastlines, from Iceland to Spain, and even targeted colonial American shipping. These "Sallee Rovers" were a formidable force, capturing thousands of men, women, and children, and instilling widespread fear. Their attacks were so pervasive that:

• In 1625, Cornwall and Devon lost "27 ships and 200 persons taken" in a single summer.
• Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel was captured and became a corsair base.
• Between 1609 and 1616, Algiers alone captured 466 English trading ships.

Human cargo prized. Initially seeking treasure, renegade pirates like the Dutchman Jan Janszoon (Murad Rais) quickly realized the immense value of human captives. They would pay huge sums for Christian slaves, who were destined for labor, domestic service, or concubinage. Murad Rais famously returned to Salé with 400 enslaved Icelanders and later captured 237 villagers from Baltimore, Ireland, selling them in Algiers.

European helplessness. Kings and ministers across Europe were paralyzed by a sense of helplessness, unable to mount a coordinated defense against these relentless attacks. The British Privy Council displayed a "callous lack of concern" for enslaved mariners, and early diplomatic efforts, like John Harrison's mission in 1625, yielded minimal results, with only 190 slaves released out of thousands. This impotence allowed the trade to flourish, devastating coastal communities and exposing the vulnerability of European maritime powers.

2. Moulay Ismail: Morocco's Sultan of Slaves and Grand Builder

He treats all that belong to his empire not as free subjects, but as slaves.

Ascension to power. Moulay Ismail seized the Moroccan throne in 1672, following the accidental death of his brother, Sultan Moulay al-Rashid. Facing numerous rivals, Ismail acted with speed and cunning, first securing the treasury at Fez and then proclaiming himself sultan, reportedly celebrating by slaughtering those who refused to submit. His rule was characterized by deception, betrayal, and a ruthless determination to unify a fractured land.

Megalomanic vision. Ismail harbored vainglorious dreams of restoring Morocco to a position of equality with Europe's great powers, and he conceived a monumental imperial palace in Meknes to rival Versailles. This vast construction project, intended to stretch for miles, became the central focus of his reign, demanding immense resources and an endless supply of labor. He famously stated, "King Louis commands men, whereas I command beasts," referring to his subjects and slaves.

Tyrannical rule. Moulay Ismail ruled through terror, displaying capricious outbursts and extreme violence. He saw himself as the absolute master of his subjects' lives and fortunes, often killing for pleasure or to assert his authority. His personal bodyguard of black slaves, the bukhari, were fiercely loyal and ruthless enforcers of his will, ensuring that his commands were carried out to the letter, often with brutal efficiency.

3. The Brutal Reality of Christian Captivity in Meknes

I am hear in Salley, in most miserable captivitye, under the hands of most cruell tyrants.

Dehumanizing conditions. Upon capture, European mariners were subjected to public humiliation, chained, and confined in "matamores"—underground cells that were "filthy, stinking and full of vermin." These overcrowded dungeons, often knee-deep in water during winter, offered no light or sanitation, leading to widespread disease and despair. Slaves were given meager rations of "black bread and water," often rotten or partially cooked, and were forced to wear rough, unwashed djellabas that chafed their skin.

Relentless forced labor. The primary purpose of the slaves was to fuel Moulay Ismail's colossal building projects in Meknes. They toiled for up to fifteen hours a day, often at night, performing back-breaking tasks:

• Carrying "prodigious loads of dirt and stones" on their heads.
• Mixing hazardous lime mortar, which frequently caused burns.
• Sawing, cutting, and erecting marble pillars.
• Grinding with hand-mills and sweeping stables.
  Overseers, typically brutal black guards, inflicted constant beatings and whippings for any perceived slackness, often striking at the head or using red-hot irons.

High mortality and despair. The combination of brutal labor, starvation, and unsanitary conditions led to a high death toll among the captives. Diseases like dysentery and plague ravaged the slave pens, killing thousands. Those who survived often fell into deep depression, fearing they would never be released. John Stocker, a captain, wrote, "when I think on my poor wife and children... [it] almost drives me distracted." The sultan showed little sympathy for the sick, sometimes ordering them to be beaten or even executed for not working.

4. Thomas Pellow's Forced Conversion and Rise in the Sultan's Service

I was at last constrained to submit, calling upon God to forgive me, who knows that I never gave up the consent of the heart.

Torture and apostasy. Thomas Pellow, captured at age eleven, endured severe torture at the hands of Moulay Ismail's son, Moulay es-Sfa, who relentlessly pressured him to convert to Islam. Pellow resisted for months, suffering daily bastinadoes and being burned with fire, until his spirit and body were broken. His forced conversion, marked by a public circumcision, was a profound turning point, severing him from his Christian faith and English identity.

A renegade's life. As an apostate, Pellow was considered to have forfeited his British nationality and the right to be ransomed. However, his conversion opened doors to a different kind of servitude within the palace. He was groomed as a palace retainer, learning Arabic and eventually serving as a personal attendant to the sultan. This position, while offering better food and lodging, was fraught with danger due to Moulay Ismail's unpredictable cruelty.

Harem guard and soldier. Pellow's quick wits and bravery, notably when he defied the sultan by refusing him entry to the harem, earned him trust and promotion. He became chief porter to the queen's palace, guarding the inner sanctum of the harem, and later served as a captain of renegade soldiers. He was forced to participate in military campaigns against rebellious tribes, witnessing horrific bloodshed and suffering multiple wounds, further entrenching him in the sultan's brutal regime.

5. Diplomacy's Failure: European Attempts to Free Slaves

The English captives will not be sett att liberty unless some minister goes to Meknes with a handsome present for the emperor, and bribes for his favourites.

Capricious negotiations. European powers, including Britain and France, made repeated attempts to negotiate the release of their enslaved citizens, often sending ambassadors with lavish gifts and ransom money. However, Moulay Ismail proved to be a master of caprice, frequently changing terms, demanding exorbitant sums, and using the captives as instruments of his foreign policy. His word was often unreliable, and treaties were easily torn up.

Commodore Stewart's mission. In 1720, Commodore Charles Stewart led a British embassy to Meknes, bringing costly presents and a signed treaty. Despite initial optimism and a lavish reception, Stewart faced the sultan's unpredictable nature. Moulay Ismail, after accepting the gifts, initially refused to release the slaves, citing concerns about losing skilled laborers. It took the intercession of Queen Umulez Ettabba, one of the sultan's wives, to finally secure the release of 293 British and colonial American captives.

The renegades abandoned. A significant oversight of these diplomatic missions was the abandonment of European renegades like Thomas Pellow. Despised for having forsaken their Christian faith, they were not included in ransom negotiations, despite many having converted under duress. Pellow, who served as an interpreter and adviser to Stewart, was left behind, highlighting the harsh reality that apostasy meant permanent forfeiture of their home government's protection.

6. Morocco's Volatile Succession: Civil War and Shifting Power

His death was occasioned... by his drinking a small bowl of milk at his entrance into Meknes from Fez.

Moulay Ismail's demise. After a remarkable 55-year reign, Moulay Ismail died in 1727 at the age of eighty, his body ravaged by disease but his virility undiminished. His death was initially kept secret for eight weeks to prevent the customary post-sultan chaos, with his putrid corpse propped up in a coach to maintain the illusion of his continued rule. This deception aimed to secure the succession of his chosen son, Ahmed ed-Dehebi.

Bloody power struggles. The period following Moulay Ismail's death plunged Morocco into a series of brutal civil wars among his numerous sons. Ahmed ed-Dehebi's reign was short-lived, marked by drunkenness and debauchery, which alienated his courtiers and the black army. He was deposed by his brother Abdelmalek, only to reclaim the throne through a bloody siege of Meknes, during which Pellow was wounded. Abdelmalek was later strangled, but Ahmed ed-Dehebi himself died mysteriously, possibly poisoned, just days after his triumph.

Impact on slaves. The constant turmoil had a devastating impact on the European slaves and renegades. While temporarily freed from hard labor during the initial chaos, they were soon pressed back into service by new sultans, often for demolition work or to fight in the ongoing conflicts. Moulay Abdallah, who succeeded Ahmed ed-Dehebi, proved equally megalomaniacal, ordering the destruction of vast palace sections and delighting in watching slaves buried alive under rubble.

7. The Perilous Quest for Freedom: Pellow's Escape Attempts

Notwithstanding my so late miraculous escape from the bloody knife at Azzemour... I was then thoroughly resolved to pursue it.

First attempt: Azzemour. Pellow's first escape attempt from Agoory, near Meknes, was a solitary, desperate dash for the Portuguese garrison at Mazagan. He traveled undetected for three and a half days, reaching the castle walls, but was captured by Moorish plunderers who mistook him for a Portuguese Christian. Sentenced to public execution in Azzemour, he was miraculously saved at the last moment by a sympathetic officer, Si Mohammed, who intervened against the mob's fury, demonstrating his authority over local factions.

Second attempt: Salé. Years later, Pellow planned a second escape with two English renegades, William Hussey and William Johnston, intending to steal a sloop from Salé harbor and sail to Gibraltar. Their plan involved intoxicating the Moorish guards, but Johnston's last-minute betrayal led to Pellow's arrest. Pellow, with Hussey's quick-witted support, managed to convince the governor that Johnston was the instigator, resulting in Johnston's imprisonment and Pellow's release, though he felt guilty for his comrade's fate.

Final escape: The long route home. In 1737, after 23 years of captivity and the death of his wife and daughter, Pellow made his final, successful escape. Disguised as a wandering Arab physician, he traversed Morocco, enduring bandit attacks and a musket wound. He eventually reached the port of Willadia, where he encountered Captain Toobin, an Irish sea-dog, who, moved by Pellow's story, risked his own life to take him aboard his ship. Pellow's journey culminated in his emotional return to his native Penryn, Cornwall, in 1738.

8. The End of an Era: Sir Edward Pellew's Decisive Blow

Destroying forever the insufferable and horrid system of Christian slavery, can never cease to be a source of delight and heartfelt comfort.

Abolitionist movement. By the early 19th century, the white slave trade, though diminished, still persisted, prompting the eccentric British admiral Sir Sidney Smith to establish the "Society of Knights Liberators of the White Slaves of Africa." This movement gained traction at the Congress of Vienna in 1814, where Smith passionately argued for military action against the Barbary states, highlighting the trade's inhumanity and its detrimental impact on commerce.

Pellew's mission. Lord Castlereagh, Britain's foreign secretary, spurred by European criticism and America's recent successful action against Algiers, dispatched a formidable British fleet to the Mediterranean in 1816. Command was given to Vice Admiral Sir Edward Pellew (Lord Exmouth), a collateral descendant of Thomas Pellow, who shared a deep personal interest in ending white slavery. His mission was to compel the rulers of Barbary to release all slaves and renounce the trade permanently.

The bombardment of Algiers. In August 1816, Pellew's fleet, bolstered by Dutch vessels, anchored off Algiers. After the ruling dey, Omar Bashaw, refused an ultimatum, Pellew unleashed a devastating bombardment. The battle raged for hours, reducing much of Algiers to rubble and destroying its corsair fleet. Over 2,000 Algerines were killed, forcing the dey to surrender unconditionally. This decisive victory led to the release of 1,642 slaves in Algiers and prompted Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco to also renounce slavery, effectively ending the centuries-old white slave trade.

9. The Forgotten History of White Slavery's Scale and Impact

It is impossible for me to describe the excessive joy I felt during all the time of our rowing to the shore... after my so long and grievous servitude amongst the barbarians to be more than ordinary.

Vast scale of captivity. Over three centuries, at least one million Europeans and Americans were enslaved in North Africa. Algiers alone held a continuous population of about 25,000 captives between 1550 and 1730, sometimes doubling that number. Tunis and Tripoli held thousands more, and Moulay Ismail's Meknes housed anywhere from 5,000 to 25,000 white slaves at any given time. This constant influx, driven by death, apostasy, and ransom, meant approximately 5,000 new white slaves were brought to Barbary each year.

Profound personal impact. The narratives of former slaves, like Thomas Pellow, reveal the profound personal toll of this trade:

• Loss of family and identity.
• Endurance of brutal physical and psychological torment.
• Forced religious conversion and cultural assimilation.
• The constant struggle between hope and despair.
  Pellow's emotional return to Penryn, where his parents initially did not recognize him after 23 years, underscores the deep scars left by captivity.

Historical significance. Despite its immense scale and human cost, the white slave trade is often overshadowed by the transatlantic slave trade. However, its eventual abolition, spearheaded by figures like Sir Sidney Smith and Sir Edward Pellew, marked a significant moment in humanitarian history. The image of a Christian slave breaking free from fetters, emblazoned on Pellew's coat of arms, serves as a powerful, albeit often overlooked, symbol of this forgotten chapter of human suffering and liberation.

Last updated: February 17, 2026