The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran

1. The Koran's Deep Syro-Aramaic Linguistic Roots

The fact, namely, that Syro-Aramaic was the most important written and cultural language in the region in whose sphere the Koran emerged, at a time in which Arabic was not a written language yet and in which learned Arabs used Aramaic as a written language, suggests that the initiators of the Arabic written language had acquired their knowledge and training in the Syro-Aramaic cultural milieu.

Aramaic's Dominance. Before the rise of Arabic, Syro-Aramaic served as the lingua franca across the Middle East for over a millennium, particularly as a written and cultural language. This historical context is crucial, as it implies that the earliest developers of written Arabic, often Christianized Arabs, were deeply immersed in a Syro-Aramaic cultural and linguistic environment. It is highly probable that they naturally integrated elements of this dominant language into their nascent Arabic script and vocabulary.

Cultural Exchange. The influence wasn't merely incidental; it was foundational. Early Arabic, as a developing written language, borrowed extensively from the more established Syro-Aramaic, especially for cultural and religious terms. This borrowing wasn't always a direct translation but often involved phonetic transcriptions or semantic adaptations, leading to words that, while appearing Arabic, carried underlying Aramaic meanings or structures. This pervasive influence suggests a profound cultural exchange that shaped the very fabric of early Koranic language.

Beyond Dialectal Variation. While traditional scholarship often attributes linguistic peculiarities in the Koran to dialectal variations within Arabic, this study argues for a deeper, more systemic influence. Many Koranic obscurities are not merely dialectal shifts but direct remnants or misinterpretations of Syro-Aramaic terms and grammatical structures. Recognizing this substratum is key to unlocking the Koran's original meaning, moving beyond the limitations of later Arabic linguistic frameworks.

2. Defective Early Arabic Script Fueled Misinterpretations

The real problem in the early Arabic script, however, was in the consonants, only six of which are clearly distinguishable by their form, whereas the remaining 22, due to their formal similarities (usually in pairs), were only distinguishable from each other by the context.

Ambiguous Script. Early Arabic script was highly defective, resembling a form of shorthand. It primarily designated consonants, with vowels often omitted or indicated by rudimentary marks. Crucially, many consonants shared identical basic forms, differentiated only by later-added diacritical dots. This inherent ambiguity meant that a single written form could represent multiple words or sounds, making accurate interpretation heavily reliant on context or an unbroken oral tradition.

Consequences of Ambiguity. The lack of clear diacritical points and vowel signs in early Koranic manuscripts created a fertile ground for diverse readings and subsequent misinterpretations. As the oral tradition weakened over centuries, later Arabic philologists and exegetes, unfamiliar with the original Syro-Aramaic substratum, often assigned meanings based on their contemporary Arabic understanding or arbitrary choices. This process inadvertently distorted many Koranic expressions, leading to theological and narrative inconsistencies.

Garshuni Hypothesis. The author posits that the original Koranic text might have been written in Garshuni (or Karshuni)—Arabic written using Syriac letters. This hypothesis is supported by observed mistranscriptions of Syriac letters into Arabic script, where visually similar Syriac characters were incorrectly rendered as different Arabic ones. Such errors, like confusing Syriac 'd' and 'r' or 'g' and 'h', explain many otherwise inexplicable misreadings in the canonical Koran, highlighting the profound impact of script on meaning.

3. "Qur'an" Originally Meant "Lectionary," Not Independent Scripture

As an ecclesiastical terminus technicus (technical term), the Koran thus corresponds originally to the lectionarium (lectionary) still used in Western Christianity today as a liturgical book containing excerpts from scripture to be read aloud during the service.

Etymological Revelation. The very word "Qur'an" (Arabic: قُرْآن) is argued to be a direct borrowing from the Syro-Aramaic "Quryana" (ܩܪܝܢܐ), meaning "reading," "pericope," or "lectionary." This re-etymologization challenges the traditional Islamic view of the Qur'an as an inherently Arabic, divinely revealed text in its entirety. Instead, it suggests an origin as a liturgical book containing selected readings from existing Judeo-Christian scriptures.

Implications for Content. If the Qur'an was initially a lectionary, its numerous allusions to biblical narratives and figures become more understandable. It would function as a compilation of sacred texts, drawing upon the Old and New Testaments, rather than a standalone, entirely new revelation. This perspective explains why many Koranic passages seem to presuppose prior knowledge of biblical stories, often appearing obscure without that context.

"Arabic" as "Translated." The Koran's self-designation as "Arabic" (عَرَبِيّ) in several passages, when viewed through this lens, might not signify an original, pure Arabic composition. Instead, it could mean "translated into Arabic" from its Syro-Aramaic source. This interpretation is supported by the verb يَسَّرَ (yassara), often translated as "made easy," which in Syro-Aramaic also means "to translate." Thus, the "Arabic Qur'an" would be a translated lectionary, making it accessible to an Arabic-speaking audience.

4. The "Hur" of Paradise Are "White, Crystal-Clear Grapes"

These examples ought to rule out the imagined virgins of Paradise, who are not mentioned anywhere in the Koran, as the referent for the substantivized adjective حُور (ḥūr) "white."

Challenging a Core Myth. The popular Islamic notion of "Hur" (virgins of Paradise) is fundamentally reinterpreted. The author argues that this concept stems from a profound misreading and misinterpretation of Koranic text, influenced by later Persian mythological ideas rather than the Koran's original intent. The term حُور (ḥūr), traditionally understood as "dark-, wide-eyed maidens," is philologically shown to be a feminine plural adjective meaning "white."

Grapes, Not Maidens. The key to this reinterpretation lies in identifying the unstated noun that حُور (ḥūr) modifies. By examining other Koranic descriptions of Paradise, particularly its fruits, and drawing parallels with Syriac Christian hymns (like those of Ephraem the Syrian), the author concludes that حُور (ḥūr) refers to "white grapes." This is supported by Syriac lexicon entries where "white" (ܚܶܘܳܪܳܐ) is a known descriptor for a variety of grapes.

"Eyes" as "Sparkle." The accompanying term عِين (ʿīn), often translated as "big-eyed," is reinterpreted as "sparkle," "gleam," or "crystal-clear," referring to the appearance of gems or pearls. Since the Koran explicitly compares these "white" entities to "pearls," the combined expression حُور عِين (ḥūr ʿīn) metaphorically describes "crystal-clear white grapes." This interpretation resolves contradictions with biblical and Koranic statements about marriage in Paradise, restoring internal coherence to the text.

5. The "Boys" of Paradise Are "Iced Juices" or "Fruits"

With the expression ܝܰܠܕܳܐ ܕܰܓܦܶܢܬܳܐ (yalda da-gpetta) (literally) "child" (= product) of the grapevine, it is then the "fruit" or the "juice" of the grapevine that is meant.

Beyond Human Servants. The traditional understanding of "boys of perpetual youth" (وِلْدَانٌ مُّخَلَّدُونَ) serving in Paradise is also challenged. The author argues that this interpretation, like that of the "Hur," is a misreading. The term وِلْدَان (wildān), while meaning "boys" in later Arabic, primarily signifies "product" or "fruit" in its Syro-Aramaic cognate ܝܰܠܕܳܐ (yalda), especially in the context of "child of the vine" (grape juice/fruit).

"Iced" and "Eternal." The adjective مُخَلَّدُونَ (mukhalladūn), typically translated as "of perpetual youth" or "eternal," is reinterpreted. Through philological analysis, it is linked to a Syro-Aramaic root meaning "iced" (ܓܠܝܕܐ). This suggests that the "boys" are not human servants but "iced fruits" or "juices." The comparison of these entities to "pearls" further supports this, as pearls are white and gleaming, akin to iced grapes or crystal-clear beverages.

Liturgical Context. This reinterpretation aligns with Christian Syriac liturgical traditions, where wine (the "fruit of the vine") holds significant symbolic value, particularly in the Eucharist. The idea of "iced juices" or "fruits" being served in Paradise resonates with the imagery of abundance and refreshment, consistent with a Christian-influenced conception of the afterlife, rather than a literal depiction of young male servants.

6. Reinterpreting Key Koranic Narratives Through Syro-Aramaic

Then he called to her immediately after her delivery: 'Do not be sad, your Lord has made your delivery legitimate'.

Mary's Birth Narrative. The story of Mary's childbirth in Sura 19:24, where a voice calls to her "from beneath her" about a "rivulet" (سَرِيًّا), is reinterpreted. The phrase مِنْ تَحْتِهَا (min taḥtihā), traditionally "from beneath her," is re-read as مِنْ نُحَّتِهَا (min nuḥḥatihā), meaning "immediately after her delivery," drawing on a Syro-Aramaic root for "descent" or "birth." The "rivulet" (سَرِيًّا) is re-read as سَرِيًّا (saryā), meaning "legitimate" in Syro-Aramaic. This transforms the verse into a profound declaration of Jesus' legitimacy, addressing Mary's despair over her perceived illegitimate pregnancy.

Abraham's Sacrifice. In Sura 37:103-104, Abraham's act of sacrificing his son is re-examined. The phrase وَتَلَّهُ لِلْجَبِينِ (wa-tallahu li-l-jabīn), traditionally "he threw him down upon his forehead," is reinterpreted. تَلَّهُ (tallahu) is linked to a Syro-Aramaic root meaning "to bind" or "to hang," while لِلْجَبِينِ (li-l-jabīn) is re-read as لِلْحَبِّينِ (li-l-ḥabbīn), referring to "firewood" or "burning materials." This aligns the Koranic narrative more closely with the biblical account (Genesis 22:9), where Abraham binds Isaac and lays him on the altar's firewood.

Moses and the Fish. The tale of Moses and his companion in Sura 18:61, where a fish "took its way in the sea freely" (سَرَبًا), is clarified. سَرَبًا (saraban), often translated as "freely" or "wriggling," is linked to the Syro-Aramaic سَرِيًّا (saryā), meaning "freely" or "unrestricted." This highlights the fish's miraculous, unhindered movement. These reinterpretations demonstrate how Syro-Aramaic unlocks more coherent and contextually fitting meanings for pivotal Koranic narratives.

7. Sura 96: A Call to Christian Liturgy and Eucharist

In sum, the result of this philological discussion is the following reading and understanding for Sura 96 according to the Syro-Aramaic reading: ... You ought not to heed him at all, perform (instead) (your) divine service and take part in the liturgy of Eucharist.

Re-contextualizing Sura 96. Sura 96, traditionally considered the first revelation to Prophet Muhammad, is reinterpreted as a call to Christian worship and participation in the Eucharist. This radical shift is achieved by re-evaluating key terms through their Syro-Aramaic equivalents. For instance, اقْرَأْ (iqraʾ), usually "Recite" or "Read," is understood as "Call (in the name of your Lord)," a common liturgical invocation in Syriac Christianity.

"Sticky Clay" and "Forgetting." The term عَلَق (ʿalaq), traditionally "clotted blood" or "embryo," is re-read as "sticky clay," linking it to other Koranic descriptions of human creation. يَطْغَى (yaṭghā), typically "is rebellious," is reinterpreted as "forgets" (يَنْسَى), suggesting that man forgets his divine connection when he becomes rich. This reframes the Sura's opening verses from a narrative of creation and human rebellion to a call for remembrance and worship.

Eucharistic Participation. The concluding verses, particularly وَاقْتَرِبْ (wa-qtarib), traditionally "and approach (your Lord in humility)," are re-read as a direct reference to the Eucharist. The Syro-Aramaic equivalent ܐܶܬܩܰܪܰܒ (etqarrab) is a technical liturgical term meaning "to take part in the celebration of the Eucharist" or "to receive the Eucharist." This reinterpretation transforms Sura 96 into a profound Christian liturgical text, suggesting a Judeo-Christian origin for this foundational Koranic passage.

8. Sura 108: A Message of Constancy in Prayer

We have given you the (virtue of) constancy; so pray to your Lord and persevere (in prayer); your adversary (the devil) is (then) the loser.

"Kawthar" as Constancy. Sura 108, "Al-Kawthar," traditionally interpreted as "abundance" or a river in Paradise, is re-read as a message of "constancy" or "persistence." The term الْكَوْثَر (al-kawthar) is linked to the Syro-Aramaic ܟܽܘܬܳܪܳܐ (kuttārā), meaning "constancy" or "steadfastness." This shifts the Sura's focus from material blessings to spiritual endurance.

"Sacrifice" as "Persevere." The verb وَانْحَرْ (wa-nḥar), traditionally "and sacrifice," is reinterpreted as "and persevere (in prayer)." This is achieved by linking it to the Syro-Aramaic root ܢܓܪ (ngar), meaning "to wait," "to hold out," or "to persist." This re-reading aligns with other Koranic passages that emphasize persistence in prayer and worship, reinforcing the theme of spiritual steadfastness.

Adversary's Defeat. The Sura concludes with إِنَّ شَانِئَكَ هُوَ الْأَبْتَرُ (inna shāniʾaka huwa l-abtar), traditionally "Verily, it is he who hateth thee who is the docked one." شَانِئَكَ (shāniʾaka) is understood as "your hater" or "adversary," while الْأَبْتَرُ (al-abtar) is linked to a Syro-Aramaic root meaning "broken," "defeated," or "destroyed." This transforms the Sura into a powerful affirmation that constancy in prayer leads to the defeat of one's spiritual adversary, echoing themes found in Christian epistolary literature like the First Epistle of Peter.

9. Classical Arabic Exegesis Often Missed the Original Meaning

Yet I am surprised at anyone who reads the Koran without being able to interpret it: How on earth can he take pleasure in reading it?

The Exegetical Challenge. The author highlights the inherent difficulties faced by classical Arabic exegetes in interpreting the Koran. Despite their dedication, many commentators, including Tabari, often resorted to speculative interpretations or acknowledged their inability to fully grasp certain passages. This struggle stemmed from a lack of understanding of the Koran's deep Syro-Aramaic substratum and the defective nature of early Arabic script.

Folk Etymology and Misattributions. Arabic lexicography, exemplified by the Lisan al-Arab, frequently attempted to explain obscure Koranic terms through folk etymology or by citing later Arabic poetry, often misinterpreting the borrowed words. This led to the creation of fictitious Arabic roots or the misattribution of meanings, which then became entrenched in subsequent scholarship. The author provides numerous examples where the Lisan struggles to define terms that are clearly Syro-Aramaic in origin.

Ignoring Historical Context. The later Arabic grammarians, who standardized Classical Arabic, often imposed their newly established rules onto the Koranic text retrospectively. This approach, while aiming for linguistic coherence, inadvertently obscured the original linguistic and grammatical nuances of the Koran, which operated under different, Aramaic-influenced rules. This historical disconnect led to many "grammatical errors" being perceived in the Koran, which are, in fact, perfectly correct Syro-Aramaic structures.

10. Syro-Aramaic: The Unacknowledged Bridge to Early Arabic Culture

The importance of the Koran in terms of the history of religion and cultural history is a generally acknowledged fact. Although its role as a mediator between a more than thousand-year Aramean civilization and the Arabic culture it ushered in has been recognized, the Aramaic language's share in the process has not been sufficiently appreciated.

Aramaic's Pivotal Role. The study underscores Syro-Aramaic's critical, yet largely unacknowledged, role as a cultural and linguistic bridge. Before Arabic's ascendancy, Aramaic civilization flourished for over a millennium, profoundly influencing the nascent Arabic culture. The Koran, emerging from this milieu, absorbed significant linguistic and conceptual elements from Syro-Aramaic, acting as a primary conduit for this cultural transmission.

Mecca's Aramaic Roots. Even the name "Mecca" (مَكَّة) itself is proposed to have a Syro-Aramaic etymology, deriving from ܡܰܟܳܐ (makkā), meaning "lower" or "low-lying," consistent with its topography. This suggests that Mecca might have been an early Aramaic settlement, further cementing the deep historical connection between Aramaic culture and the origins of Islam. This challenges traditional narratives that often portray early Arabic culture as developing in isolation.

Christian Influence. The pervasive Syro-Aramaic influence points to a significant Judeo-Christian substratum in the early Koran. Many reinterpreted passages, such as those concerning Paradise or liturgical practices, reveal strong parallels with Christian Syriac traditions. This suggests that the early Koranic community was deeply intertwined with existing Christian communities in Syria and Mesopotamia, drawing upon their religious and cultural heritage in shaping its own identity and sacred text.

11. Luxenberg's Philological Method: Decoding the Koran's Obscurities

The aim of this work was in the first place to clarify the passages designated in Western Koran studies as obscure.

Systematic Approach. Luxenberg's method is a rigorous philological framework designed to systematically decode the Koran's obscurities. It moves beyond traditional Arabic exegesis by integrating historical linguistics, comparative Semitics, and textual criticism. The process begins by acknowledging the inherent ambiguity of early Arabic script and the potential for misreadings, rather than assuming the infallibility of later interpretations.

Multi-layered Analysis. The method involves several critical steps:

• Consulting Arabic Tradition: Initially checking classical Arabic commentaries (Tabari) and lexicons (Lisan al-Arab) for existing interpretations.
• Syro-Aramaic Homonyms: Identifying homonymous roots in Syro-Aramaic that offer more coherent meanings within the Koranic context.
• Diacritical Re-evaluation: Re-reading the Arabic script by hypothetically altering or removing diacritical points, which were added centuries after the original text.
• Loan Formations/Translations: Recognizing instances where Arabic expressions are either direct phonetic borrowings or semantic loan translations from Syro-Aramaic.
• Early Lexicons: Utilizing early Syro-Aramaic-Arabic lexicons (like Bar 'Ali and Bar Bahlol) as invaluable bridges to the original meanings.

Unlocking Hidden Meanings. This comprehensive approach has revealed that a significant portion of the Koran, previously deemed obscure or contradictory, can be clarified by understanding its Syro-Aramaic linguistic and cultural background. The method demonstrates that many deeply entrenched Islamic concepts, from theological tenets to narrative details, may have originated from misinterpretations of a text heavily influenced by a language and culture that predated and shaped early Arabic.

Last updated: January 14, 2026