The Nature of True Virtue

1. True Virtue is Benevolence to Being in General

True virtue most essentially consists in BENEVOLENCE TO BEING IN GENERAL.

The essence of virtue. Virtue is not merely any beauty, but a beauty of the mind, specifically residing in the heart's qualities and actions. It's a "general beauty," meaning it appears beautiful when viewed comprehensively, considering its universal tendencies and connections to all existence. This comprehensive beauty is what defines true virtue.

Universal good will. At its core, true virtue is a "consent, propensity, and union of heart to being in general," immediately expressed as general good will. This doesn't mean every virtuous act must directly target "being in general," but rather that all virtuous acts of love towards particular beings arise from this underlying disposition to love universal existence. It's a foundational orientation of the heart.

Beyond individual objects. This general benevolence extends to all intelligent beings, desiring their well-being and happiness. It is distinct from "love of complacence," which is delight in beauty, because true virtue cannot primarily consist in loving beauty (which would be circular). Instead, it's an "absolute benevolence" towards being simply considered, seeking the highest good of the universal system.

2. Supreme Love to God is the Core of True Virtue

true virtue must chiefly consist in LOVE TO GOD; the Being of beings, infinitely the greatest and best.

God as the ultimate object. Given that true virtue is benevolence to being in general, it logically follows that it must primarily consist in supreme love to God. God possesses infinitely the greatest share of existence and is infinitely the most beautiful and excellent. He is the head of the universal system, the source of all being and beauty, making Him the supreme object of both benevolent and complacential love.

Rejoicing in God's glory. While humans cannot "profit" God, our benevolence towards Him is expressed through rejoicing in His happiness and promoting His glory. Any benevolent affection towards God is proper and necessary. To deny this would be to deny gratitude for His benefits, which is inconsistent with acknowledging His existence and providence.

Defective morality. Any scheme of morality that does not place supreme regard and love for God as its foundation, subordinating all other virtues to it, is fundamentally flawed. Private affections, even if extended to a large group like a nation, cannot be true virtue if they are not derived from and subordinate to this supreme love for God. Such limited affections, detached from universal benevolence, can even lead to opposition against the greater system.

3. Distinguishing Primary Spiritual Beauty from Secondary Natural Beauty

That consent, agreement, or union of being to being... may be called the highest and primary beauty... Yet there is another, inferior, secondary beauty... which consists in a mutual consent and agreement of different things, in form, manner, quantity, and visible end or design.

Two kinds of beauty. Edwards identifies two distinct types of beauty. The "primary beauty" is the "cordial agreement" or union of minds and hearts, which, when viewed comprehensively, is true virtue. This is the unique beauty of spiritual and moral beings.

Natural harmony. The "secondary beauty" is an inferior, natural agreement found even in inanimate things, characterized by:

• Regularity
• Order
• Uniformity
• Symmetry
• Proportion
• Harmony
  Examples include the beauty of a square, the proportion of a human body, or the melody of a tune. This is "uniformity in the midst of variety," and it also encompasses the fitness of a thing to its use or unity of design.

An image of the divine. God established laws of nature that make this secondary beauty pleasing to us because it serves as an "image" or resemblance of the higher, spiritual beauty. While this natural beauty can sometimes inspire divine love in virtuous hearts, our appreciation of it is an instinct, not a perception of its spiritual analogy. A taste for this secondary beauty, whether in material or immaterial things (like order in society or justice), is not the same as a truly virtuous taste for general benevolence.

4. Self-Love and Private Affections Are Not True Virtue

Self-love, as the phrase is used in common speech, most commonly signifies a man's regard to his confined private self, or love to himself with respect to his private interest.

Defining self-love. Self-love, in its most common and relevant sense, refers to a person's regard for their own private interest, encompassing personal pleasures and pains, sensitive appetites, and the desire for others' honor and love. While a general capacity to love what is pleasing is universal, true self-love focuses on one's individual well-being.

Love from self-interest. Many affections that appear benevolent can actually stem from self-love. For instance, loving those who love us, or hating those who hate us, is a natural consequence of self-love, as it aligns with our private interest. There is no true virtue in such affections if they proceed solely from this principle, as no other principle is needed to explain them.

Moral sense vs. true virtue. Even the "moral sense" involved in gratitude and anger, which distinguishes between conscious agents and inanimate objects, is often a "sense of DESERT." This is a secondary moral sense, an apprehension of uniformity and proportion in justice (e.g., kindness deserves kindness, injury deserves resentment). This sense of justice is distinct from a love of true virtue, which is rooted in public benevolence, and can exist without any principle of true virtue in the heart.

5. Natural Conscience Provides a Sense of Right and Wrong, Not True Virtue

Thus approving of actions, because we therein act as in agreement with ourselves; and thus disapproving, and being uneasy in the consciousness of disagreeing with ourselves, in what we do, is quite a different thing from approving or disapproving actions because in them we are united with being in general.

Self-consistency as a principle. Natural conscience is a fundamental human disposition to feel uneasy when acting inconsistently with oneself. This means doing to others what one would resent if done to them, or failing to do what one would expect from them. Such self-opposition naturally generates internal disturbance and a form of disapproval.

Two components of conscience. Natural conscience involves two aspects:

• Self-consistency: Approving actions where we treat others as we would wish to be treated, and disapproving actions where we would resent similar treatment.
• Sense of desert: An apprehension of the natural agreement between actions and their consequences, such as injury deserving punishment, or kindness deserving reward.
  These two aspects work together, leading to an internal judgment of right and wrong.

Distinct from spiritual sense. While natural conscience, when well-informed, aligns with God's law and approves of true virtue, it does so without "tasting" its primary, essential beauty. It perceives the justice and natural agreement in supreme love to God and benevolence to being in general, but it does not experience the inherent sweetness or delight in benevolence itself. This explains why a sinner's conscience can be awakened to approve God's judgment without their heart being truly converted to holiness.

6. Particular Instincts Resemble Virtue but Lack Its Essence

if any being or beings have by natural instinct, or any other means, a determination of mind to benevolence, extending only to some particular persons or private, system... such limited private benevolence, not arising from, not being subordinate to, benevolence to being in general, cannot have the nature of true virtue.

Instincts for preservation. Mankind possesses various natural instincts, such as:

• Natural affection: Love of parents for children.
• Mutual affection between sexes: For procreation and companionship.
• Pity: Uneasiness at the sight of others' extreme distress.
  These instincts are established by God primarily for the preservation and well-being of humanity in this world.

Limited and non-virtuous. These affections, while appearing benevolent, are not true virtue because they are limited in scope and do not arise from a principle of general benevolence. They are particular, independent determinations of the mind. For example, natural pity can exist even when one is indifferent to a person's overall happiness or even harbors malevolence towards them, operating only when suffering exceeds one's ill will.

No tendency to general good. Since these instincts are not subordinate to general benevolence, their operation, when detached, can even imply opposition to being in general, similar to self-love. They do not inherently tend to produce true virtue. Therefore, affections arising from such particular instincts, however useful, cannot be considered true virtue.

7. Why Non-Virtuous Qualities Are Often Mistaken for True Virtue

The reason why men are so ready to take these private affections for true virtue, is the narrowness of their views; and above all, that they are so ready to leave the Divine Being out of their view, and to neglect him in their consideration.

Resemblance to true virtue. Many natural affections and principles are mistaken for true virtue because they share some general characteristics with it. They involve a form of love or good will, and they appear beautiful within their limited, private spheres. For instance, pity has a similar effect to benevolence, and natural gratitude mimics friendship.

Narrowness of human perception. The primary reason for this confusion is the "narrowness of men's views," particularly their tendency to exclude the Divine Being from their consideration. When God, the head of the universal system, is neglected, limited affections (like love for family, party, or country) can appear as the highest virtue, especially when they extend to a considerable number of individuals, giving a false impression of universality.

Other contributing factors:

• Negative moral goodness: The absence of these affections would indicate a greater moral evil (e.g., insensibility of conscience).
• Similar effects: They often tend to the good of mankind and restrain vice, mimicking the beneficial outcomes of true virtue.
• Shared names: There are truly virtuous affections (e.g., virtuous pity, gratitude) that share the same names, leading to confusion when the underlying principle differs.
  These factors combine to make it easy to mistake these natural, but non-virtuous, qualities for genuine holiness.

8. True Virtue is Grounded in the Necessary Nature of Things, Not Arbitrary Sentiment

if thereby be meant, that the frame of mind, or inward sense given them by God, whereby the mind is disposed to delight in the idea of true virtue, is given arbitrarily, so that if he had pleased he might have given a contrary sense and determination of mind, which would have agreed as well with the necessary nature of things, this I think is not true.

Immediate perception of beauty. The perception of true virtue's beauty is an immediate sensation, a "spiritual sense" given by God, rather than a conclusion reached through argumentation. Just as one tastes sweetness or hears harmony directly, the virtuous mind directly perceives pleasure in the idea of true virtue.

Not arbitrary. However, this spiritual sense is not arbitrary. It is not something God could have made otherwise and still have it align with the "necessary nature of things." True virtue, being the cordial consent of being to being in general, inherently agrees with universal existence. A contrary temper (opposition to being in general) would necessarily be discordant.

Alignment with divine and universal order. This virtuous temper aligns with God's own necessary nature, as God Himself is being in general and must love Himself. Furthermore, it is the only temper that allows created beings to be united with each other and to be consistent with themselves. Any opposition to being in general would lead to universal discord and self-contradiction, as all beings necessarily love happiness and would thus be loving their own misery if they loved a tendency to universal misery.

Last updated: February 9, 2026