The Creation of Patriarchy

1. Patriarchy: A Historical, Not Natural, Construct

If patriarchy were “natural,” that is, based on biological determinism, then to change it would mean to change nature.

Challenging assumptions. For millennia, male dominance has been perceived as universal, God-given, or natural, thus immutable. This book fundamentally challenges that notion, asserting that patriarchy is a historical system with a discernible beginning, and therefore, it can have an end through historical processes. This perspective shifts the focus from biological inevitability to cultural and societal construction.

Beyond biology. Traditional explanations often cite male physical strength or reproductive differences as the basis for female subordination. However, anthropological evidence from hunting and gathering societies often reveals complementarity and high status for women, disproving the universality of male dominance. Women's essential contributions to civilization, such as the invention of basketry, pottery, and horticulture, further challenge the "man-the-hunter" myth.

A new lens. By viewing patriarchy as a historical construct, we can analyze how it emerged, evolved, and was maintained, rather than accepting it as a static, natural order. This approach allows for the possibility of change and empowers women to understand their role in both its creation and its potential dismantling. It reframes the "woman question" from one of inherent inferiority to one of historical development.

2. Women's Subordination: The Precursor to Slavery

The oppression of women antedates slavery and makes it possible.

First form of dominance. Slavery, the first institutionalized form of hierarchical dominance, emerged with food surpluses, means to subdue prisoners, and a conceptual distinction between enslavers and enslaved. The crucial "invention of slavery" was the idea that a group could be permanently marked as "enslaveable" and forced into subordination.

Learning from women. Men learned this concept of permanent dominance by first observing and practicing it on women within their own groups, and then on captured women. Women's greater physical vulnerability, especially with children, made them easier to coerce and integrate into captors' households. This process of "dishonoring" through sexual violence and natal alienation was perfected on female war captives.

Sexual exploitation. Historical evidence overwhelmingly shows that the majority of early slaves were women, while male captives were often killed or mutilated. For women, enslavement inherently meant sexual services for their masters, a defining feature that did not apply to men. This sexual exploitation of lower-class women by upper-class men became a pervasive mark of class oppression throughout history.

3. The "Exchange of Women" as the Foundation of Private Property

The appropriation by men of women’s sexual and reproductive capacity occurred prior to the formation of private property and class society. Its commodification lies, in fact, at the foundation of private property.

Commodification of women. The "exchange of women" in marriage, a phenomenon observed in tribal societies, was identified as a leading cause of female subordination. This practice, whether through bride stealing or negotiated marriages, turned women into a commodity, making them objects in an exchange between groups of men.

Economic drivers. With the shift from hunting/gathering to agriculture, children became an economic asset, increasing the incentive to acquire more women for their reproductive potential. This led to institutionalized incest taboos and patrilocal marriage patterns, where elder males controlled the exchange of women, their sexual behavior, and acquired private property in women.

Reversing Engels. This perspective suggests that the control over women's reproduction (their sexuality) preceded the acquisition of private property, rather than being a consequence of it, as Engels argued. The appropriation of women's labor as reproducers became the first form of private property, inextricably linking the exploitation of human labor with the sexual exploitation of women.

4. Women's Class Defined by Sexual Ties, Men's by Production

For women, class is mediated through their sexual ties to a man, who then gives them access to material resources.

Divergent class definitions. In Mesopotamian societies, as class formation solidified, men's class position was defined by their relationship to the means of production. Those who owned resources dominated those who did not. For women, however, class was primarily determined by their sexual relationship to a man.

Spectrum of unfreedom. Women's status existed on a spectrum of unfreedom, ranging from:

• Slave woman: Her sexuality and reproductive capacity were fully commodified.
• Slave-concubine: Her sexual performance could elevate her status or her children's.
• "Free" wife: Her sexual and reproductive services to one man granted her property and legal rights.
  This system meant that while women of different classes had vastly different privileges, they all shared the unfreedom of being sexually and reproductively controlled by men.

Sexual control as class marker. The distinction between "respectable" (attached to one man) and "not-respectable" (unprotected, free to sell services) women became a fundamental class division for females. This division, often enforced by laws like veiling, limited upper-class women's privileges and economically/sexually oppressed lower-class women, hindering female solidarity.

5. The Archaic State: Patriarchy Institutionalized

The archaic states were organized in the form of patriarchy; thus from its inception the state had an essential interest in the maintenance of the patriarchal family.

State and family intertwined. The archaic state, emerging from the twin roots of male sexual dominance and the exploitation of some men by others, was fundamentally patriarchal. The patriarchal family served as the basic unit of its organization, both reflecting and generating its rules and values.

Legal codification. Mesopotamian law codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, extensively regulated female sexuality, marriage, and property rights, institutionalizing women's lifelong dependency on men. These laws often protected the rights of husbands and fathers over their female kin, even in cases of abuse or debt.

Paternalistic dominance. The state's interest in maintaining social order was directly linked to the orderly functioning of the patriarchal family. The king's authority over his subjects mirrored the father's authority over his household. This "paternalistic dominance" offered women protection and some class privileges in exchange for their subordination in all matters, including sexual and domestic service.

6. Divine Demotion: Goddesses Yield to Male Gods

The dethroning of the powerful goddesses and their replacement by a dominant male god occur in most Near Eastern societies following the establishment of a strong and imperialistic kingship.

Shifting pantheons. In ancient Mesopotamia, a significant time lag existed between women's societal subordination and the demotion of goddesses. Initially, powerful Mother-Goddesses were central to fertility cults and creation myths, embodying life-giving and even death-dealing powers.

Rise of male deities. With the development of strong kingships and archaic states, a pattern emerged: the Mother-Goddess was demoted, replaced by a dominant male god (often a storm or air god). This male deity then absorbed the power of creation and fertility, often becoming the head of the pantheon, mirroring the earthly king's authority.

Symbolic appropriation. Kings began to appropriate symbols previously associated with goddesses, such as the "tree of life" or the "water of life," depicting themselves as the source of fertility and power. This symbolic shift legitimized male ascendancy in the divine realm, reflecting and reinforcing the patriarchal structures on Earth.

7. Biblical Narratives: Solidifying Male Procreativity and Female Subordination

In the writing of the Book of Genesis, creativity and procreativity are ascribed to all-powerful God, whose epitaphs of “Lord” and “King” establish him as a male god, and female sexuality other than for procreative purposes becomes associated with sin and evil.

Monotheistic redefinition. Jewish monotheism, as articulated in Genesis, fundamentally redefined generativity. Yahweh, a singular, invisible, and ineffable male God, became the sole creator of the universe, severing creativity from any maternal source and linking it to divine will and male "seed."

Adam's naming power. God granted Adam the power of naming, not only over animals but also over Eve, defining her as "Woman because she was taken out of Man." This act of naming symbolized Adam's sovereignty and established woman's identity as derivative and subordinate, a "natural" part of man.

The Fall and its consequences. The story of the Fall further solidified female subordination. Eve, in alliance with the serpent (a symbol of the fertility goddess), became the source of sin and evil, leading to the curse of painful childbirth and subordination to her husband. This narrative condemned free female sexuality and defined woman's redemptive role solely through motherhood, within patriarchal boundaries.

8. Greek Philosophy: Rationalizing Female Inferiority as Natural Law

The first departure [from type] is indeed that the offspring should become female instead of male; this, however, is a natural necessity.

Aristotle's biological determinism. Classical Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle's work, provided a "scientific" and philosophical foundation for female inferiority. He posited that the male contributed the "efficient" and "formal" causes (spirit, form) to procreation, while the female contributed only the "material" cause (passive matter), defining women as "mutilated males" lacking the "principle of soul."

Hierarchy as natural. Aristotle's teleological worldview justified existing social hierarchies as natural. He argued that just as the soul rules the body, and the mind rules appetites, so too does the male naturally rule the female. This philosophical framework integrated female inferiority into a comprehensive system of thought, making it appear indisputable.

Exclusion from citizenship. In the democratic Greek polis, citizenship was tied to the citizen-soldier, inherently excluding women. Aristotle's political science rationalized this exclusion, using the "natural" dominance of husband over wife as a model to justify the master's dominance over the slave, thereby making sexual dominance a foundational principle of class and social order.

9. Male Hegemony Over Symbol Systems: The Ultimate Disadvantage

Thus, ultimately, it was men’s hegemony over the symbol system which most decisively disadvantaged women.

Exclusion from definition. With the invention of writing and the development of complex symbol systems in Mesopotamia, men gained control over the recording and interpretation of knowledge. Women, already disadvantaged by social and economic changes, were largely excluded from this crucial cultural advance, denying them the power to define their own reality.

Distorted history. For millennia, history was written and interpreted by men, focusing on male deeds and experiences, presenting women as marginal or victims. This androcentric bias created a false narrative that profoundly affected women's psychology, leaving them without historical precedents for significant action or autonomy.

Symbolic appropriation. Men appropriated and transformed major symbols of female power, such as the Mother-Goddess, into patriarchal frameworks. This symbolic dethroning, coupled with the denial of women's access to religious learning and priesthood, ensured that women could not directly represent the divine principle or interpret the world on their own terms.

10. Women's Complicity: Internalized Subordination

Women have for millennia participated in the process of their own subordination because they have been psychologically shaped so as to internalize the idea of their own inferiority.

Psychological shaping. Patriarchy functions effectively only with the cooperation of women, which is secured through deep psychological conditioning. Women have internalized the values that subordinate them, often passing them on to their children, making their own subordination seem natural and inevitable.

Divided by class and "respectability." The system divided women against each other, particularly through the concept of "respectability" tied to sexual behavior. Upper-class women, benefiting from male protection and class privileges, often found it difficult to identify with the struggles of lower-class women, hindering collective female consciousness.

Lack of historical precedent. The absence of a widely known history of female struggle and achievement deprived women of models for independence and autonomy. Without precedents, it was difficult for women to imagine alternatives to their subordinate status, reinforcing their acceptance of patriarchal ideology.

11. The Androcentric Fallacy: Distorting Human Reality

By taking the half for the whole, they have not only missed the essence of whatever they are describing, but they have distorted it in such a fashion that they cannot see it correctly.

The "man" as universal. Western civilization's mental constructs are built on the "androcentric fallacy," where "man" subsumes "woman" and represents all of humanity. This conceptual error distorts understanding, much like believing the Earth is flat prevents understanding its true nature.

Beyond "adding women." Rectifying this fallacy requires a radical restructuring of thought, not merely "adding women" to existing patriarchal frameworks. It demands acknowledging that humanity consists equally of men and women, and that both sexes' experiences, thoughts, and insights must be central to any generalization about human beings.

Unfettered thought. The historical exclusion of women from abstract thought and symbol-making has had immense social costs. As women's minds become unfettered, they bring new perspectives, challenging existing assumptions and offering transformative insights. This process of women defining and reordering the world is essential for building a truly human society, free of dominance and hierarchy.

Last updated: August 25, 2025