Key Takeaways
1. The "Common Cause" was a Deliberate Act of Propaganda.
To rouse and unite the inhabitants, and to persuade them to patience for several years, under present sufferings, with the hope of obtaining remote advantages for their posterity, was a work of difficulty: This was effected in a great measure by the tongues and pens of the well informed citizens, and on it depended the success of military operations.
Unifying diverse colonies. The American Revolution was not an inevitable, spontaneous uprising but a "work of difficulty" requiring deliberate effort to forge a unified front among disparate colonies. British officials, observing deep-seated provincialism and internal conflicts—such as land disputes, religious tensions, and slave unrest—were confident that American unity was impossible. Patriot leaders, however, actively cultivated a "common cause" rhetoric, appealing to both reason and emotion to convince colonists that an attack on one was an attack on all.
Beyond abstract ideals. While early patriot appeals emphasized abstract concepts like "liberty," "rights," and "consent," the outbreak of war in 1775 necessitated a new, more visceral narrative. The shift from political protest to armed conflict demanded stories that could justify violence, galvanize participation, and clearly delineate friends from enemies. This new script, focusing on "war stories," became crucial for sustaining the rebellion.
"Propagation" not "propaganda." The term "propaganda" is anachronistic and carries negative connotations of totalitarian systems. A more accurate descriptor is "propagation," which contemporaries would have understood as a process of growing support. Patriot leaders consciously engaged in a "systemic effort" to propagate their ideas, often by supplying sympathetic printers with carefully curated information, rather than resorting to outright deception.
2. Newspapers were the Primary Weapon in Uniting the Colonies.
By the press we can speak to Nations.
Essential communication hubs. Newspapers, the most advanced communication method of the 18th century, were indispensable for forging intercolonial unity. Printers, initially striving for neutrality, became increasingly partisan as the imperial crisis deepened. By 1775, the weekly bundles of news emerging from dozens of print shops were as potent as any military hardware, capable of shaping public opinion across vast distances.
The power of "exchanges." A key professional practice was the "exchange system," where printers shared free copies of their papers with colleagues in other cities. This created a de facto news wire, ensuring that significant stories, once printed in one locale, would be widely reprinted across the colonies. This system fostered a sense of shared information and collective identity, allowing colonists to feel connected to a larger "imagined community."
Beyond front-page essays. While historians often focus on political essays on the front pages or advertisements on the back, the interior pages, filled with concise news paragraphs and extracted accounts, were crucial for mobilization. Patriot leaders, like John Adams, actively "cooked up" these news items, knowing they would be disseminated far beyond their initial publication. The detailed subscription records of papers like the Pennsylvania Journal reveal extensive networks, with issues traveling overland and by sea, reaching thousands of readers and countless more who heard the news secondhand.
3. British "Proxy" Alliances Fueled Patriot Mobilization.
Things are now come to that Crisis, that we must avail ourselves of every resource, even to raise the Negroes, in our cause.… Nothing is to be neglected of which we can avail ourselves.
Gage's desperate measures. As early as June 1775, General Thomas Gage, commander of British forces in Boston, recognized the need for unconventional tactics to suppress the rebellion. He proposed "raising all the Canadians and Indians in his power" and even suggested "to raise the Negroes, in our cause," along with hiring European mercenaries. While these were initially suggestions, they quickly became perceived realities for American patriots.
A dangerous gamble. For patriot leaders, the prospect of British alliances with these groups presented a dual challenge. While they abhorred the idea of "letting loose these blood Hounds to scalp Men, and to butcher Women and Children," they also recognized the propaganda value. Publicizing British efforts to enlist Indians and slaves could demonize the enemy and solidify colonial unity, despite the inherent risks of such alliances.
The "common cause" redefined. The rhetoric of the "common cause" evolved to incorporate these threats. It became less about abstract rights and more about fear and outrage. Patriot publicists relentlessly broadcast stories—often based on rumors or exaggerated accounts—of British agents "instigating" slave rebellions, "tampering with" Indians, and hiring "foreign mercenaries." This narrative served to alienate colonists from their former cultural cousins and redefine the conflict as a desperate struggle against a barbaric enemy.
4. Early War Narratives Exploited Fears of Slave and Indian Uprisings.
Indians, Negroes, Russians, Hanoverians, and Hessians are talked of as the Instruments … [to] humble America.
Widespread anxiety. The news of Lexington and Concord, rather than solely inspiring patriotic fervor, also triggered deep-seated fears across the colonies. In places like Framingham, Massachusetts, and Annapolis, Maryland, initial reactions included panic over potential slave insurrections. In Virginia, Governor Dunmore's removal of gunpowder was interpreted as a move to disarm colonists against slave revolts, not British troops.
Southern "instigated insurrections." In the Carolinas, reports of British Indian Superintendent John Stuart and his deputy Alexander Cameron "disposing" Indians to fight, coupled with the discovery of slave plots (like Thomas Jeremiah's in Charleston), created a "great Ferment." Patriot leaders, like Henry Laurens, quickly linked these threats, using phrases like "instigated insurrections" to describe the combined danger from British agents, loyalists, Indians, and slaves. This narrative was crucial for mobilizing support in the South.
Dunmore's fateful proclamation. Lord Dunmore's November 1775 proclamation, offering freedom to slaves who joined the British, became a powerful symbol of British depravity. Patriot printers amplified this news, often alongside scathing commentary, depicting Dunmore as a "Negro-Thief" and his black recruits as "the very scum of the country." This narrative, reinforced by stories of slave defections and skirmishes, solidified the image of "domestic insurrectionists" as a primary threat to American liberty.
5. The Declaration of Independence Codified Proxy-Based Grievances.
He has excited domestic insurrections among us and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions.
A climax of grievances. The Declaration of Independence, while celebrated for its universal ideals, also served as a powerful propaganda document. Its final grievances, meticulously crafted by Thomas Jefferson and refined by Congress, culminated in accusations against King George III for employing "foreign mercenaries," "merciless Indian savages," and "domestic insurrections." These charges were not incidental; they were the "coup de grâce," designed to justify separation and galvanize support.
The "we" vs. "he" dichotomy. The Declaration's core rhetorical strategy was to draw a stark line between "we," the virtuous American people, and "he," the tyrannical king and his barbaric allies. This framing, reinforced by widespread newspaper coverage of British "plots" and atrocities, presented a clear choice: "unconditional submission to tyranny... or resistance by force." The inclusion of proxies in this ultimate indictment served to dehumanize the enemy and solidify a collective American identity.
Strategic omissions and inclusions. Congress's editing process for the Declaration was revealing. While they retained the charge of inciting "domestic insurrections," they largely removed Jefferson's condemnation of the slave trade. This decision prioritized unity among slaveholding colonies over a consistent application of natural rights. Similarly, loyalists were omitted from the final list of grievances, suggesting a strategic choice to avoid alienating potential future citizens, unlike the permanent condemnation of Indians and slaves.
6. Hessian Mercenaries Underwent a Strategic Image Transformation.
The man who submits, without striking a blow, May be said, in a sense, no danger to know: I pray then, what harm, by the humble submission At Trenton was done to the standard of Hessian?
Initial fear and demonization. News of Britain's hiring of German mercenaries in early 1776, confirmed by Captain John Lee's eyewitness account and George Merchant's smuggled treaties, sparked widespread alarm. Patriot publicists, including Thomas Paine, initially depicted Hessians as "men monsters" and "unlicensed strangers" capable of "cruelty, death and devastation," including rape and indiscriminate plunder. This narrative was used to rally Americans against the impending invasion.
Trenton's unexpected redemption. Washington's surprise victory at Trenton in December 1776, capturing nearly a thousand Hessians, dramatically altered their public image. Suddenly, the "timid Hessian" was no longer a terrifying foe but a "cowardly" and pitiable victim of a "despotic and avaricious prince." Patriot newspapers, like Mary Goddard's Maryland Journal, published satirical poems and reports emphasizing Hessian desertions and their "great joy at being released from their late masters."
Strategic re-framing. This transformation was a deliberate act of propaganda. Patriot leaders, including Washington and Congress, actively cultivated a narrative of Hessian redemption. They offered land and citizenship to deserters, and official reports began to shift blame for atrocities from Hessians to British soldiers. This strategic re-framing served multiple purposes:
- Weakening the British forces through desertion.
- Neutralizing a perceived threat to American civilians.
- Avoiding alienation of German-American communities.
- Reinforcing the narrative of British barbarity by making them the sole perpetrators.
By 1777, Hessians largely disappeared from patriot propaganda as a primary enemy, replaced by a more sympathetic image that allowed for their eventual integration into American society.
7. Frontier Atrocities Became Justifications for Punitive Expeditions.
The cries of the distressed—of the fatherless and the Widows … come to me from all quarters.
Wyoming Massacre: A fabricated horror. The July 1778 attack on the Wyoming Valley, while a real tragedy, was transformed by patriot publicists into a horrific "massacre." John Holt's New-York Journal published a widely reprinted, largely false account claiming Indians, at British instigation, had butchered defenseless inhabitants and burned them alive. This narrative, including the infamous "the Hatchet" response to surrender, fueled widespread calls for vengeance.
Cherry Valley: Propaganda's tragic consequence. The November 1778 Cherry Valley massacre, where loyalists and Indians killed dozens of civilians, was partly attributed by British Captain Walter Butler to patriot propaganda. He claimed Indians were "exasperated" by false accusations of cruelty at Wyoming and vowed "they would no more be falsely accused." This suggests that patriot narratives, intended for eastern audiences, had unintended and deadly consequences on the frontier, contributing to a cycle of escalating violence.
Sullivan's scorched-earth campaign. In response to these atrocities, Washington ordered General John Sullivan to conduct a punitive expedition against the Iroquois in 1779. Sullivan's mission was "the total destruction and devastation of their settlements and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible." Patriot newspapers celebrated the burning of dozens of Indian towns and thousands of acres of crops, portraying it as righteous vengeance against "merciless savages" and a necessary act to secure the frontier.
The "Hair-Buyer" and George Rogers Clark. The narrative of British instigation was further cemented by figures like Henry "the Hair-Buyer" Hamilton, the British lieutenant governor at Detroit, accused of paying bounties for American scalps. George Rogers Clark's conquest of Kaskaskia and Vincennes, though delayed in reporting, was celebrated as a heroic strike against Hamilton's influence, portraying Clark as an exemplary American citizen defending the frontier.
8. The Southern Strategy Highlighted the Peril of Slave Defections.
A newspaper in South Carolina in the present State of their Affairs would be equal to two regiments.
Communication breakdown. The British "southern strategy," beginning with the capture of Savannah in 1779 and Charleston in 1780, severely disrupted patriot communication networks. With print shops silenced and post roads cut, patriot leaders like Nathanael Greene lamented being "totally in the dark" about events in the Deep South. This absence of reliable information hindered mobilization and allowed loyalist narratives to flourish.
Slavery as a "precarious Tenure." The British presence in the South offered unprecedented opportunities for enslaved African Americans to seek freedom. Thousands flocked to British lines, leading to massive slave defections in Georgia and South Carolina. Patriot leaders, including Henry Laurens, recognized that slavery was a "very precarious Tenure" and that these defections posed a significant threat to the war effort and the social order.
The "black levy" controversy. In response to the crisis, John Laurens revived his proposal to raise black regiments in the South. Despite Lincoln's desperate pleas and Congress's endorsement, South Carolina's legislature repeatedly rejected the plan, fearing it would incite further slave revolts and undermine the social hierarchy. This decision, driven by "deep rooted national prejudices," prioritized the maintenance of slavery over military necessity.
Propaganda's enduring power. Even with patriot newspapers largely absent from the Deep South, the narrative of British "instigation" of slaves persisted. Reports of "armed Negroes skirmishing with the Rebels" and "horrible depredations and murders" committed by "black dragoons" continued to circulate in northern papers. This sustained propaganda, even in the face of communication challenges, reinforced the image of African Americans as a dangerous proxy enemy, further entrenching racial prejudices.
9. Patriot Narratives Shaped Post-War Citizenship and Exclusion.
The principle of government being radically changed by the revolution, the political character of the people was also changed from subjects to citizens. The difference is immense.
Citizenship: A new, exclusive concept. David Ramsay articulated that the Revolution transformed colonists from "subjects to citizens," a shift of "immense" difference. This new concept of citizenship, however, was not universally inclusive. While the "rage militaire" had temporarily blurred some lines, the common cause narratives ultimately shaped who would be deemed worthy of full membership in the new republic.
"Free white persons" only. The Naturalization Act of 1790, defining eligibility for citizenship as "any Alien being a free white person," codified the racial exclusions inherent in the common cause. This decision, made amidst debates about national identity and the legacies of the war, reflected the prevailing view that only white individuals possessed the "good character" and loyalty required for republican citizenship.
Exclusion of non-white proxies.
- Indians: Despite some wartime alliances, Indians were largely excluded. The "conquest theory" asserted U.S. sovereignty over their lands, and the Articles of Confederation removed their status as diplomatic peers. Narratives of "merciless savages" justified punitive expeditions and land dispossession, overshadowing any recognition of "good" Indian allies.
- African Americans: Free blacks, though numerous after the war, were relegated to a "liminal space between citizens and aliens." The "new provocations" of slave defections during the war, coupled with existing prejudices, fueled arguments against their full inclusion. Emancipation efforts, even when successful, often came with restrictions that denied freed blacks equal rights.
Redemption for others. In contrast, former loyalists, despite initial patriot attempts to conflate them with other proxies, were largely reintegrated. German mercenaries, initially demonized, were quickly redeemed after Trenton, becoming "fellow victims of tyrannous European monarchs" and eventually "useful Mechanics" and citizens. This selective inclusion highlights the deliberate nature of the common cause's exclusionary power.
10. The Revolution's Founding Myth Obscured its Complex Realities.
The Spirit, that made those heroes dare To die, or leave their children free, Bid Time and Nature gently spare The shaft we raise to them and thee.
A sanitized national hymn. Ralph Waldo Emerson's "Concord Hymn" and Edward Everett's oration, commemorating the 50th anniversary of Lexington, crafted a powerful founding myth. They celebrated "embattled farmers" and a "Spirit" of universal liberty, effectively erasing the complex realities of the war. This idealized narrative, however, obscured the diverse participation and often brutal aspects of the Revolution.
The "little book" that wasn't. Benjamin Franklin and Lafayette's proposed children's schoolbook, intended to permanently engrave British atrocities (including proxy violence) in the minds of future generations, never materialized. Yet, the desire to shape historical memory persisted. Early histories, poems, and narratives, like John Trumbull's M'Fingal and John Filson's Adventures of Col. Daniel Boon, codified proxy war stories, ensuring their longevity in American culture.
Enduring "new provocations." Thomas Jefferson's "new provocations" in Notes on the State of Virginia hinted at the lasting impact of slave defections. This phrase, along with the continued invocation of "merciless savages" in the War of 1812, demonstrated how Revolutionary war stories continued to shape national policy and identity for decades. The memory of British "instigation" of Indians and slaves remained a potent political tool.
A double-edged legacy. The common cause, while uniting the colonies and securing independence, simultaneously created a narrative that justified the exclusion of African Americans and Native Americans from full citizenship. This "ethically constitutive" story, born of political expediency and wartime desperation, became a foundational element of the American republic, casting a long shadow over the promise of universal liberty.
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