Saratoga's Sweltering Verandah

In the oppressive heat of Saratoga, Mrs. St George and her peers—Mrs. Elmsworth and Mrs. Closson—survey the social battlefield from the Grand Union Hotel's verandah. Their daughters, beautiful and restless, parade before the eyes of society, each mother anxiously cataloguing the girls' assets and liabilities. The arrival of the mysterious Closson family, with their exotic daughter Conchita, unsettles the established order. Nan St George, the youngest and most sensitive, is caught between admiration for her sister Virginia and fascination with Conchita's boldness. The mothers' ambitions and anxieties set the stage for a season of alliances, betrayals, and the relentless pursuit of social advancement.

New Alliances, New Dangers

Nan, feeling isolated and misunderstood, is drawn to Conchita's unconventional charm. Their friendship blossoms over shared secrets and small rebellions, like smoking cigarettes in the fields. Meanwhile, Mrs. St George and Mrs. Elmsworth, threatened by the Clossons' social ascent, consider joining forces to protect their daughters' prospects. The girls' camaraderie is both a comfort and a threat, as it blurs the lines between friend and rival. The arrival of a new governess is announced, promising to impose order but also stirring Nan's dread of losing her newfound freedom. The stage is set for shifting allegiances and the testing of loyalties.

Fathers, Daughters, and Deals

Colonel St George returns, bringing gifts and a sense of security to Nan. His jovial presence masks deeper financial anxieties and a willingness to compromise social standards for business gain. He enlists Nan's help in smoothing relations with the Clossons, revealing that social acceptance is often a matter of expedience. Mrs. St George, torn between pride and necessity, is pressured to befriend Mrs. Closson despite her misgivings. The family's internal dynamics—favoritism, resentment, and the transactional nature of affection—are laid bare, foreshadowing the sacrifices required for upward mobility.

The Arrival of Miss Testvalley

Miss Laura Testvalley, an experienced and sharp-witted governess of Italian descent, arrives to oversee Nan's education. Her presence is both a threat and a promise: she brings the discipline of European aristocracy but also a sympathetic understanding of Nan's inner turmoil. The girls greet her with a mix of mischief and curiosity, and Nan quickly forms a bond with her new mentor. Miss Testvalley's own history of exile and sacrifice mirrors the girls' longing for belonging and recognition. Her arrival marks a turning point, as she becomes both guide and accomplice in their social ambitions.

Social Climbing in New York

The St Georges and their friends find themselves on the fringes of New York's elite, excluded from the most coveted balls and gatherings. Mrs. St George's frustration grows as her daughters' beauty fails to secure them a place among the city's old money. The girls' friendship with Conchita, now engaged to an English lord, offers a tantalizing glimpse of greater possibilities abroad. Miss Testvalley suggests that London, not Newport, is the true stage for their talents. The decision to cross the Atlantic is made, driven by hope, envy, and the desire to return triumphant to the society that once snubbed them.

Conchita's Scandalous Engagement

Conchita's engagement to Lord Richard Marable, a younger son of a marquess, is both a social coup and a source of scandal. Rumors about her origins and the legitimacy of her parents' marriage circulate, but the allure of an English title outweighs concerns. The wedding is hastily arranged, with Virginia and Nan as bridesmaids, further entwining the fates of the American girls with the British aristocracy. Miss Testvalley navigates the treacherous waters of gossip and propriety, protecting her charges while quietly advancing their interests. The engagement exposes the transactional nature of marriage and the precariousness of social ascent.

The Assembly Ball Intrigue

The coveted Assembly Ball becomes a battleground for acceptance. Virginia and Lizzy Elmsworth are initially excluded, but Miss Testvalley and Lord Richard orchestrate their invitation through subtle manipulation and appeals to English snobbery. The girls' triumph at the ball is bittersweet, as it is achieved through subterfuge and the intervention of outsiders. Nan, too young to attend, experiences both envy and relief. The episode underscores the fragility of their position and the lengths to which they must go to secure even temporary victories. The ball is both a high point and a warning of the costs of ambition.

London: The Great Invasion

The St Georges, Elmsworths, and Clossons descend upon London, determined to conquer its social heights. They are aided by Miss Jacky March, an American expatriate with connections and a keen sense of opportunity. The English aristocracy is both fascinated and appalled by the newcomers, whose beauty and audacity disrupt established norms. The girls' successes and failures are closely watched, and their every move is scrutinized for signs of vulgarity or distinction. The city becomes a stage for their ambitions, but also a labyrinth of unspoken rules and hidden traps. The invasion is exhilarating, exhausting, and ultimately transformative.

Runnymede's Moonlit Games

At Lady Churt's cottage on the Thames, the American girls revel in newfound freedom, hosting moonlit parties and attracting a bevy of English admirers. The absence of strict chaperonage allows for flirtation and the testing of boundaries. Rivalries intensify, particularly between Virginia and Lizzy, as they compete for the attention of Lord Seadown. Nan, still on the margins, observes the games with a mixture of longing and skepticism. Miss Testvalley keeps a watchful eye, aware that the girls' innocence is both their charm and their vulnerability. The idyll is fragile, threatened by jealousy, scandal, and the ever-present demands of reputation.

Honourslove and Hidden Longings

A visit to Honourslove, the ancestral home of Guy Thwarte, awakens in Nan a deep sense of history and belonging. She and Guy share a quiet understanding, their connection rooted in a mutual appreciation for beauty and tradition. The contrast between the warmth of Honourslove and the cold grandeur of other great houses highlights the emptiness at the heart of many aristocratic lives. Guy's own struggles—with family expectations, financial pressures, and the memory of a lost love—mirror Nan's uncertainties. Their brief encounter plants the seeds of a deeper attachment, one that will challenge the boundaries of duty and desire.

The Duke of Tintagel's Dilemma

The young Duke of Tintagel, burdened by the weight of his title and his mother's ambitions, longs for simplicity and genuine connection. A chance meeting with Nan at the ruins of Tintagel sparks an unexpected intimacy. Mistaking him for an ordinary man, Nan speaks freely, and the Duke is captivated by her innocence and lack of calculation. Their subsequent encounters, orchestrated by Miss Testvalley and the social machinery around them, lead to a proposal that Nan accepts more out of confusion and pressure than true conviction. The marriage is celebrated as a triumph, but both bride and groom sense the hollowness beneath the surface.

Marriages and Mistakes

As the American girls secure their places through marriage—Virginia to Lord Seadown, Lizzy to Hector Robinson, Conchita to Lord Richard—the initial euphoria gives way to disillusionment. The realities of English aristocratic life—rigid hierarchies, financial anxieties, and emotional isolation—become apparent. Nan, now Duchess of Tintagel, struggles to adapt to her new role, feeling increasingly alienated from her husband and his world. The marriages, once seen as the ultimate prize, reveal themselves as bargains struck at the expense of personal happiness. The price of conformity is high, and the cost is measured in loneliness and regret.

The Price of Conformity

Nan's life at Longlands and Tintagel is defined by ritual, expectation, and the constant scrutiny of her mother-in-law, the Dowager Duchess. Her attempts to assert herself—through charity, friendship, or even small acts of rebellion—are met with incomprehension or resistance. The grandeur of her surroundings only deepens her sense of imprisonment. The other American women, too, find that their victories are pyrrhic: Conchita is trapped in an unhappy marriage, Virginia is stifled by her husband's family, and Lizzy's ambitions are circumscribed by her husband's pragmatism. The dream of social conquest has become a gilded cage.

The Duchess's Discontent

Haunted by the sense that she has made a terrible mistake, Nan seeks solace in the company of Guy Thwarte, whose understanding and sympathy offer a glimpse of the happiness she craves. Their friendship deepens, fueled by shared confidences and a mutual sense of exile. Conchita, too, confides in Nan, revealing her own struggles with love and fidelity. The women's conversations expose the limits of their choices and the hunger for something more than status or security. Nan's restlessness grows, and she begins to contemplate the possibility of escape—from her marriage, her title, and the life that has been constructed for her.

Temptations and Confessions

A series of intimate conversations and confessions—between Nan and Guy, Nan and Conchita, and Nan and Miss Testvalley—bring hidden desires and fears to the surface. The bonds of friendship are tested as the women grapple with temptation, guilt, and the longing for authenticity. Guy's return from Brazil and his renewed presence in Nan's life intensify her inner conflict. The possibility of an affair, or even an elopement, becomes real, challenging the moral and social order that has governed their lives. Miss Testvalley, torn between loyalty and compassion, becomes both accomplice and conscience.

The Cost of Friendship

As Nan's emotional crisis deepens, Miss Testvalley is drawn into the drama, risking her own reputation and security to support her former pupil. The threat of scandal looms, and the consequences of defiance become clear. Sir Helmsley Thwarte, Guy's father, discovers the plot and reacts with fury, severing his ties with Miss Testvalley and condemning his son's involvement. The solidarity among the American women is tested, as each must choose between loyalty to one another and the demands of their new lives. The cost of friendship is revealed to be as great as the cost of ambition.

The Unraveling at Longlands

At Longlands, tensions reach a breaking point. The Dowager Duchess confronts Nan about her behavior, and the Duke is forced to acknowledge the failure of their marriage. Nan's sense of self dissolves under the weight of expectation and disappointment. The other characters, too, face the consequences of their choices: Conchita's affair is exposed, Virginia's marriage is revealed as hollow, and Lizzy's pragmatism is shown to be a form of resignation. The unraveling is both personal and collective, as the dream of social conquest gives way to the reality of loss and disillusionment.

A New Path for Nan

In the aftermath of scandal and heartbreak, Nan chooses to leave her husband and the world that has failed her. With Miss Testvalley's help, she sets out on a new path, seeking meaning and fulfillment beyond the confines of title and tradition. Guy, too, is transformed by the experience, as he and Nan contemplate a future built on love rather than ambition. Miss Testvalley, having sacrificed her own happiness for the sake of her charges, faces old age and poverty with dignity. The story ends on a note of uncertainty but also of hope, as the characters embrace the possibility of change and the promise of a life lived on their own terms.

Characters

Nan (Annabel) St George

Nan is the youngest St George daughter, overshadowed by her sister Virginia's beauty but possessed of a deep sensitivity and intelligence. Her journey is one of self-discovery, as she navigates the treacherous waters of social ambition, familial expectation, and personal longing. Nan's relationships—with her family, with Miss Testvalley, with Conchita, and ultimately with Guy Thwarte—reveal her capacity for empathy and her hunger for authenticity. Her marriage to the Duke of Tintagel is both a triumph and a tragedy, as it exposes the emptiness of the world she has been taught to desire. Nan's ultimate decision to leave her husband and seek a new life marks her as a modern heroine, willing to defy convention in pursuit of meaning.

Miss Laura Testvalley

Miss Testvalley is a complex figure: an Italian-English governess with a storied past, she brings both discipline and warmth to the St George household. Her own experiences of exile, sacrifice, and unfulfilled love inform her guidance of Nan and the other girls. Miss Testvalley is both a participant in and a critic of the social games around her, using her intelligence and connections to advance her charges' interests while remaining acutely aware of the costs. Her complicity in Nan's eventual rebellion is an act of both love and defiance, and her willingness to face poverty and isolation for the sake of her principles marks her as one of the novel's true moral centers.

Conchita Closson (Lady Richard Marable)

Conchita is the daughter of Mrs. Closson, rumored to be of dubious origins, and becomes the first of the American girls to marry into the English aristocracy. Her vivacity, sensuality, and disregard for convention make her both a magnet and a scandal. Conchita's marriage to Lord Richard is fraught with unhappiness, and her subsequent affair with Miles Dawnly exposes the limits of her freedom. Her friendship with Nan is a source of comfort and conflict, as both women struggle with the demands of love and loyalty. Conchita's fate is a cautionary tale about the dangers of ambition and the price of self-assertion.

Virginia St George (Lady Seadown)

Virginia is the elder St George daughter, celebrated for her looks and poise. Her marriage to Lord Seadown is the culmination of her mother's ambitions, but it quickly becomes a source of disappointment. Virginia's inability to adapt to the expectations of English aristocratic life leaves her isolated and unfulfilled. Her relationship with Nan is marked by both affection and rivalry, as each sister envies the other's perceived advantages. Virginia's story is one of resignation, as she comes to accept the limitations of her choices and the hollowness of her victories.

Lizzy Elmsworth (Mrs. Hector Robinson)

Lizzy is the Elmsworths' eldest daughter, a striking brunette with a sharp mind and a competitive spirit. Her rivalry with Virginia is a driving force in the early chapters, and her eventual marriage to Hector Robinson is a testament to her pragmatism. Lizzy's ability to adapt and manipulate her circumstances allows her to survive where others falter, but her success is tinged with cynicism. She is both a friend and a competitor to the other American girls, and her story highlights the compromises required for social advancement.

The Duke of Tintagel (Ushant)

The Duke is a man burdened by tradition, expectation, and his mother's overbearing influence. His longing for simplicity and genuine connection is thwarted by his inability to express emotion or adapt to change. His marriage to Nan is motivated by a desire for innocence and malleability, but he is ultimately unable to understand or satisfy her. The Duke's rigidity and passivity make him both a victim and an enforcer of the system that traps them both. His tragedy is the tragedy of the English aristocracy: the inability to change, even in the face of personal and collective unhappiness.

Guy Thwarte

Guy is the son of Sir Helmsley Thwarte, heir to the beautiful but financially troubled Honourslove. His experiences abroad and his outsider status give him a perspective that is both critical and compassionate. Guy's connection with Nan is rooted in shared values and a mutual sense of exile. His willingness to defy convention for the sake of love marks him as a true romantic, but his actions also carry the risk of scandal and ruin. Guy's journey is one of self-realization, as he learns to balance duty and desire.

Mrs. St George

Mrs. St George is the driving force behind her daughters' social ambitions, her own insecurities and disappointments fueling her relentless pursuit of status. Her relationships—with her husband, her daughters, and her peers—are marked by manipulation, anxiety, and a deep sense of inadequacy. Mrs. St George's inability to find satisfaction, even in apparent success, is a reflection of the emptiness at the heart of the social game. Her tragedy is the tragedy of a woman who sacrifices everything for a prize that proves illusory.

Sir Helmsley Thwarte

Sir Helmsley is a larger-than-life figure, both admired and pitied by those around him. His artistic ambitions, financial recklessness, and emotional volatility make him a source of both inspiration and chaos. His relationship with Miss Testvalley is one of mutual respect and unfulfilled longing. Sir Helmsley's inability to reconcile his ideals with reality mirrors the struggles of the younger generation, and his ultimate isolation is a warning about the dangers of living in pursuit of unattainable dreams.

Miss Jacky March

Miss March is a former beauty who has made a life for herself in London as a connector and confidante. Her experience, wit, and kindness make her an invaluable ally to the American girls, and her own history of disappointment gives her a unique perspective on their ambitions. Miss March's role is that of a guide and commentator, offering both practical assistance and philosophical insight. Her presence is a reminder of the possibilities and limitations of reinvention.

Plot Devices

Social Satire and Irony

Wharton employs sharp social satire to dissect the rituals, hypocrisies, and anxieties of both American and English society. The novel's humor and irony highlight the gap between appearance and reality, exposing the emptiness of social ambition and the cruelty of exclusion. The use of multiple perspectives—mothers, daughters, governesses, and outsiders—allows for a nuanced critique of the systems that govern women's lives. Satirical set-pieces, such as the Assembly Ball and the Runnymede parties, serve as microcosms of the larger social order.

Doubling and Contrast

The novel is structured around a series of doubles and contrasts: American versus English, beauty versus intelligence, ambition versus authenticity, conformity versus rebellion. The relationships between sisters, friends, and rivals are used to explore the ways in which identity is shaped by context and expectation. The contrast between the warmth of Honourslove and the coldness of Longlands, or between the freedom of Runnymede and the rigidity of the great houses, reinforces the central themes of belonging and exile.

Foreshadowing and Symbolism

Wharton uses foreshadowing to build tension and anticipation, particularly in the depiction of Nan's growing discontent and the looming possibility of scandal. Symbolic settings—the ruins of Tintagel, the gilded cages of the great houses, the moonlit river—reflect the characters' inner states and the larger forces at work. The recurring motif of imprisonment and escape underscores the novel's exploration of freedom and constraint.

Epistolary and Scenario Structure

The unfinished nature of the novel is addressed through the inclusion of letters, scenarios, and authorial commentary, which provide both closure and ambiguity. This structure allows for a multiplicity of voices and a sense of open-endedness, inviting the reader to imagine the characters' futures beyond the confines of the text. The blending of narrative and meta-narrative reinforces the novel's themes of performance, reinvention, and the search for meaning.

Analysis

The Buccaneers is Edith Wharton's incisive exploration of the costs and contradictions of social ambition, particularly for women navigating the treacherous terrain between old and new worlds. Through the intertwined fates of the St George, Elmsworth, and Closson families, Wharton exposes the emptiness of status pursued for its own sake and the emotional toll of conformity. The novel's unfinished state only heightens its sense of ambiguity and possibility, inviting readers to reflect on the choices available to its characters—and, by extension, to themselves. Wharton's portrayal of Nan's journey from innocence to disillusionment, and ultimately to self-assertion, anticipates modern debates about agency, authenticity, and the right to happiness. The Buccaneers is both a satire of social climbing and a poignant meditation on the search for meaning in a world that offers women few real choices. Its lessons—about the dangers of mistaking appearance for substance, the necessity of self-knowledge, and the courage required to break free from inherited roles—remain as relevant today as they were in Wharton's own time.

Last updated: November 2, 2025