Remaking the World

1. 1776: The Year That Remade the World

The big idea of this book is that 1776, more than any other year in the last millennium, is the year that made us who we are.

A pivotal year. The year 1776 was a crucible of transformations that profoundly shaped the modern world. It witnessed seven interconnected "revolutions" that collectively created the "post-Christian West" we inhabit today. These changes explain our contemporary ideas, institutions, and even our maps.

Interconnected transformations. Key events of 1776 illustrate this global shift:

• Thomas Paine's Common Sense ignited the American Revolution.
• Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall challenged established church narratives.
• James Watt's steam engine began running, marking an industrial leap.
• Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations laid the foundation for modern economics.
• Captain Cook's third voyage expanded globalization and exploration.
• Immanuel Kant drafted his Critique of Pure Reason, revolutionizing philosophy.
• David Hume completed his Dialogues concerning Natural Religion, a major critique of theism.
• Friedrich Klinger's Sturm und Drang heralded Romanticism.
• Benjamin Franklin's diplomatic mission to Paris sought French aid for America.

A new world order. These events, spanning across America, Britain, France, Germany, and the high seas, were not isolated incidents. They collectively initiated a new era, influencing everything from human rights and free trade to self-expression and religious pluralism, setting the stage for the WEIRDER world.

2. The WEIRDER World: Our Peculiar Modernity

The vast majority of people in human history have not shared our views of work, family, government, religion, sex, identity, or morality, no matter how universal or self-evident we may think they are.

Defining our distinctiveness. The acronym WEIRDER describes the unique characteristics of modern Western societies: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic, Ex-Christian, and Romantic. These traits make us outliers compared to most people throughout history and many cultures today. Our literacy, education system, technological environment, political freedoms, and individualistic self-perception are not universal norms.

Psychological peculiarities. Being WEIRDER profoundly affects our psychology and behavior. We tend to be highly individualistic, self-obsessed, control-oriented, nonconformist, and analytical. Our moral judgments often prioritize harm and fairness over loyalty, authority, or sanctity, leading to heated cultural disagreements. This psychological shift is deeply rooted in historical developments, particularly the influence of the Western church.

Art reflects our nature. Our art, from musicals like Hamilton to TV dramas like The West Wing and novels like Harry Potter, embodies these WEIRDER traits. They celebrate:

• Meritocracy and education
• Romantic ideals of self-discovery and intense emotion
• The complex relationship with Christianity, often relegated to the background until moments of crisis.
  This pervasive influence demonstrates how deeply these characteristics are woven into our cultural fabric.

3. Geography's Unseen Hand: Becoming Western

Tata meitai, fenua ino.

Good people, bad land. This Polynesian phrase, meaning "good people, bad land," encapsulates the profound role of geography in human development. Disparities in societal advancement, like those observed by Captain Cook between Europeans and Pacific Islanders, or between different island cultures, were not due to inherent differences in people's abilities but primarily to their environment.

Six geographical advantages. Eurasia, particularly the Fertile Crescent and East Asia, had a significant head start in developing farming due to:

• Weather: Consistent Mediterranean climates ideal for agriculture.
• Width: East-west continental axis facilitating the spread of crops and animals.
• Water: Major river systems for irrigation and transport.
• Wood: Abundant timber for fuel and construction.
• Wheat: Native cereal crops providing storable food surpluses.
• Wildlife: Presence of easily domesticable large mammals.
  These factors enabled earlier food production, leading to surpluses, population growth, specialization, and the development of complex societies.

Curiosity and commerce. While geography provided the initial advantage, the why behind European exploration and expansion was also crucial. Unlike the Ming dynasty's treasure voyages, which aimed to project power and secure tribute, European expeditions like Cook's were driven by a unique blend of curiosity and commerce. This relentless pursuit of new knowledge and trade routes, even in times of war, set the stage for Western global dominance, as exemplified by the contrasting attitudes of the Qianlong emperor and British explorers.

4. Democratic Dawn: The American Revolution's Legacy

It is certain in theory that the only moral foundation of government is the consent of the people.

A revolutionary year. The American Revolution, ignited in 1776, became the fountainhead of modern democratic movements worldwide. Events like the formation of the Continental Army, the burning of Norfolk, and the publication of Thomas Paine's Common Sense fueled the desire for independence. The Declaration of Independence, though signed weeks later by most, articulated foundational democratic principles of equality, unalienable rights, and government by consent.

From crisis to victory. The war's early months were disastrous for the Americans, marked by retreats and demoralization. However, George Washington's audacious Christmas crossings of the Delaware in late 1776, culminating in victories at Trenton and Princeton, dramatically shifted morale. Simultaneously, Benjamin Franklin's diplomatic mission to Paris secured crucial French support, demonstrating that allies and victories were essential for the nascent nation's survival.

The democratic ideal. While early American democracy had limitations (excluding women, non-property owners, and enslaved people), its core principles of popular sovereignty and equality, enshrined in the Declaration and Constitution, had a powerful democratic logic. The tension between Whig pragmatists (like John Adams) seeking stable government and Radical idealists (like Thomas Jefferson) advocating for a new world order, ultimately forged a robust system that inspired a relentless expansion of the franchise globally.

5. Enlightenment's Paradox: Becoming Educated

The motto of enlightenment is therefore: Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own understanding!

The age of reason. The Enlightenment, though not yet named, was a collective project in 1776 to free humanity from immaturity and tradition, encouraging individuals to "dare to know" and think for themselves. Figures like Diderot, d'Alembert, Kant, Hume, and Smith, connected through salons and clubs, believed they were ushering in an era where knowledge would banish darkness. The Encyclopédie epitomized this goal: to gather all knowledge for a more educated, virtuous, and happier future.

Challenging the "darkness-to-light" narrative. The Enlightenment's self-proclaimed narrative of emerging from "dark ages" is often oversimplified. Medieval Europe saw significant advancements in science, engineering, and education (e.g., cathedrals, universities). Furthermore, the Enlightenment's "light" had its own shadows:

• Many leading philosophes, including Hume, Voltaire, and Kant, held profoundly racist views, often justifying slavery.
• Their ethnocentric and chronological snobbery dismissed non-European cultures.
• The emphasis on "pure reason" often overlooked the complexities of human experience and the historical roots of their own ideas.

Transforming how we think. Despite its flaws, the Enlightenment fundamentally reshaped Western thought. In 1776, new ways of thinking emerged in various fields:

• Biology: Linnaeus's classification system included humans, paving the way for evolutionary thought.
• Geology: Whitehurst's Inquiry grappled with scientific evidence challenging biblical timelines.
• History: Gibbon's Decline and Fall established modern historical methodology with extensive research and critical analysis.
• Physics: Laura Bassi became the first female physics professor, challenging gender norms in academia.
• Philosophy: Kant's outline for Critique of Pure Reason sought to reconcile rationalism and empiricism, revolutionizing epistemology.

6. Ex-Christianity's Roots: Secularism's Surprising Origins

We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable self-evident.

The "self-evident" shift. Benjamin Franklin's edit to the Declaration of Independence, changing "sacred and undeniable" to "self-evident," symbolizes the ex-Christian West. It reflects an attempt to retain Christian moral conclusions (equality, rights) while severing their theological foundations, presenting them as universally obvious truths. This secularization, however, often overlooks the deep Judeo-Christian roots of these very concepts.

A spectrum of unbelief. The 1770s saw a range of responses to Christianity among elites:

• Irenic deists (like Franklin) saw universal values without hostility to faith.
• Polemic deists (like Voltaire) attacked the institutional church but insisted on God's necessity for morality.
• Combative atheists (like Diderot) rejected God entirely but retained Christian-shaped ethics.
• God-haters (like the Marquis de Sade) sought to dismantle Christian morality, advocating for a brutal, nature-based ethic.
  This spectrum shows that "ex-Christian" doesn't mean a complete break, but a complex re-evaluation and re-appropriation of Christian ideas.

Paganism and Protestantism. The rise of ex-Christianity was not simply a subtraction of old beliefs due to science or war. It was an unwitting product of two forces:

• Paganism: An ancient worldview that located the sacred within the cosmos, emphasizing immanence over transcendence.
• Protestantism: Its internal divisions, emphasis on individual faith, and critique of church authority inadvertently weaponized doubt and contributed to disenchantment, making religion a private choice rather than a public given.
  This fusion created "Protestant paganism," a blend of this-worldly ultimacy with reformist zeal and Christian-shaped ethics, often without acknowledging its origins.

7. Industrial Revolution: The Birth of Power and Production

I sell here, Sir, what all the world desires to have—POWER.

The dawn of machines. The year 1776 marked a pivotal moment for the Industrial Revolution, with the commercial launch of James Watt's steam engine and Richard Arkwright's mechanized cotton mill. These innovations, alongside the opening of the Bridgewater Canal, transformed Manchester into "Cottonopolis" and a global manufacturing hub, albeit with horrific social costs.

The making of power. Until the 18th century, human power relied on muscle, wind, or water. The discovery of vacuums and the harnessing of steam changed everything. Thomas Newcomen's early steam engines (1712) were inefficient, but Watt's innovation of a separate condenser (1765) dramatically improved efficiency, making steam power viable for factories and eventually transportation. Matthew Boulton, Watt's business partner, famously declared, "I sell here, Sir, what all the world desires to have—POWER."

British manufacturing's rise. Industrialization flourished in Britain due to a combination of factors:

• Metals: Abundant and accessible coal and iron ore, coupled with innovations in iron and steel production (Darby, Huntsman, Wilkinson, Cort).
• Mechanization: Rapid development of machines for cotton, pottery, and other industries, dramatically increasing productivity.
• Management: New factory systems with division of labor, cost analysis, and worker incentives (Wedgwood, Boulton, Arkwright).
• Marketing: Pioneering strategies to create consumer demand, especially among the "Middling Class" (Wedgwood).
• Money: Availability of capital and financial instruments to fund these ventures.

Invention as an industry. The Industrial Revolution's greatest invention was arguably invention itself. A "culture of growth" fostered by Christianity, the "discovery of ignorance," and widespread literacy, combined with legal protections for intellectual property (patents), incentivized continuous innovation. This unique blend of scientific inquiry and practical application, exemplified by the Lunar Society, propelled Britain ahead, creating a "Promethean triumph" of unprecedented power, but also a "Frankensteinian monster" of unintended consequences.

8. The Great Enrichment: Why Nations Became Rich

He intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention.

Escaping the Malthusian trap. For millennia, human living standards remained stagnant, with population growth consuming any gains in productivity. Around the 1770s, a "great enrichment" began in northwestern Europe, where productivity outstripped population, leading to unprecedented increases in wealth, health, and life expectancy. The average person today is roughly ten times richer than in 1776.

Adam Smith's insights. Published in 1776, The Wealth of Nations argued that national wealth derived from the productivity of labor, not land or bullion. Smith advocated for free markets, division of labor, and self-interest, believing an "invisible hand" would guide individuals' pursuit of gain to benefit society. However, Smith did not fully explain why this enrichment began in Europe, as his own critique showed European nations were not practicing true free trade.

Four explanations for enrichment:

• Institutions: Secure property rights, rule of law, and representative government (as argued by Smith and modern economists like Acemoglu and Robinson) fostered investment and innovation.
• GREED (Guns, Resource Extraction, Enslavement, Death): Critics like Abbé Raynal argued European wealth was built on colonial plunder, slavery, and exploitation, particularly in India and the Americas. The demand for luxury goods and cotton, fueled by these practices, drove industrialization.
• Culture: A "culture of growth" in Europe, characterized by curiosity, innovation, and a commitment to useful knowledge, was fostered by:
  • Christianity's influence on psychology and eschatology.
  • The "discovery of ignorance" through exploration and scientific inquiry.
  • The proliferation of books and literacy.
• Fragmentation: Europe's unique political fragmentation into small, competitive states (due to geography and the separation of church and state) fostered innovation and prevented any single power from stifling progress, unlike large Asian empires.

Moral ambiguity. The Great Enrichment is a morally complex phenomenon. While it brought immense benefits, its origins are intertwined with both Christian-influenced virtues (diligence, innovation) and vices (greed, exploitation, slavery). This ambiguity continues to shape debates about wealth, justice, and the role of Christianity in modern society.

9. Romanticism's Inward Turn: The Rise of the Self

I return into myself, and find a world.

The birth of a movement. Though the term "Romanticism" emerged later, its roots in temperament, art, and philosophy were firmly planted in the 1770s. This movement emphasized:

• Inwardness: The belief that true importance lies within the individual.
• Infinity: A longing for the indescribable and inexplicable.
• Imagination: Creativity unconstrained by reason or rules.
• Individuality: The uniqueness of each person.
• Inspiration: Artists as rule-breaking geniuses.
• Intensity: Deep, visceral emotional experiences.
• Innocence: Purity uncorrupted by society.
• Ineffability: The belief that some realities are beyond words.

Pioneers of the self. Figures like Giacomo Casanova, though known for philandering, pioneered the autobiography as a means of self-discovery, making sexuality central to identity. His candid self-disclosure was decades ahead of its time, reflecting a nascent interest in the inner life. In Germany, the Sturm und Drang movement, led by young writers like Goethe, Klinger, and Schiller, championed intense emotion, spontaneity, and defiance of convention, laying the groundwork for Romantic art and literature.

Rousseau's profound influence. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, particularly in his Reveries of the Solitary Walker (written in 1776), articulated the "inward turn" that would define Romanticism and modern Western selfhood. He emphasized solitude, sincerity, and self-reflection, believing that authenticity meant living true to one's inner self, uncorrupted by society. This concept of "expressive individualism" or the "age of authenticity" is now so ingrained in WEIRDER culture that it shapes our understanding of identity, sexuality, and personal fulfillment.

10. Christian Grace: An Answer to Modern Anxieties

By the grace of God I am what I am.

The power of unmerited favor. In 1776, amidst theological disputes, English hymnwriters like Augustus Toplady and John Newton passionately celebrated God's "amazing grace." Toplady's "Rock of Ages" and Newton's "Amazing Grace" (later an anthem for abolition) articulated a profound sense of personal sinfulness met by boundless divine mercy. This emphasis on grace, rather than works, offered a unique answer to the anxieties of the emerging WEIRDER world.

Grace for a WEIRDER world. The modern West, with its emphasis on:

• Privilege: The burden of justifying one's advantages.
• Identity construction: The exhausting task of defining and validating oneself.
• Meritocratic status: The pressure to achieve and the blame for failure.
  These factors amplify the human cry for grace. The Christian gospel, offering unmerited favor and a new identity in Christ, directly addresses these anxieties, shifting the focus from "Have I done enough?" to "Has He?"

A universal message. The evangelical theology of grace, articulated by figures like Newton and the former slave Olaudah Equiano, resonated deeply. Equiano's testimony of finding grace despite immense suffering at the hands of "Christians" demonstrated its transformative power. This emphasis on personal conversion and God's unmerited favor would fuel global missions and shape popular Christianity for centuries, offering a counter-narrative to the world's relentless pursuit of self-justification through works.

11. Christian Freedom: Liberating the Captives

Liberty is a jewel which was handed down to man from the cabinet of heaven.

The gospel of liberation. Christianity, at its core, is a message of freedom: good news for the poor, freedom for the captives, and liberty for the oppressed, as proclaimed by Jesus. This vision, rooted in the Exodus and Paul's theology of redemption, resonates deeply with WEIRDER instincts for freedom, even if conceptualized differently across the political spectrum.

Abolitionist pioneers. In 1776, Christians actively championed both physical and religious freedom. African American preacher Lemuel Haynes, in Liberty Further Extended, used the Declaration of Independence to expose the indefensibility of slavery, appealing to natural law, divine providence, and Scripture. John Wesley's Thoughts on Slavery and Granville Sharp's numerous tracts galvanized British abolitionism, arguing that slavery was an abomination in God's sight.

Religious liberty's triumph. The American Revolution saw a rapid advance in religious freedom. Influenced by figures like Presbyterian pastor John Witherspoon and his student James Madison, the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) moved beyond mere toleration to declare religious liberty an unalienable right, directed solely by "reason and conviction, not by force or violence." This unlikely alliance of evangelical dissenters and Enlightenment skeptics laid the groundwork for the First Amendment.

Beyond external chains. The Christian vision of freedom is more holistic than the WEIRDER focus on external constraints. It addresses both freedom from external oppression (tyranny, slavery) and freedom to choose flourishing, liberating individuals from internal bondage to sin (lust, pride, greed). The church's challenge is to embody this full vision, battling both external tyrannies and internal self-enslavement, offering a liberty that truly transforms.

12. Postsecular Truth: The Enduring Relevance of Faith

All the colours of the most beautiful world grow pale, as soon as you extinguish that light, the firstborn of creation.

The post-truth dilemma. The rise of "post-truth" discourse, where objective facts are challenged and "alternative facts" proliferate, highlights a deep cultural struggle. If, as philosophers like Nietzsche suggested, truth is merely a "movable host of metaphors" or "illusions which we have forgotten are illusions," then a post-Christian world inevitably becomes a post-truth one, struggling to ground moral claims or find meaning beyond useful fictions.

Hamann's metacritique. Johann Georg Hamann, the "Wizard of the North," offered a profound Christian critique of the Enlightenment in 1776. Rooted in his conversion experience, he argued:

• Against abstraction: Reason divorced from senses, passions, and bodies is gnostic nonsense.
• Against pride: Enlightenment thinkers, despite claiming skepticism, were overly confident in their own reason and ignorant of their true darkness.
• For faith: All knowledge, even of the external world, is ultimately grounded in belief, not pure reason.
• Christ as truth: The union of sensibility and understanding in language mirrors the hypostatic union of human and divine natures in Christ, the ultimate Truth.

Truth embodied. Hamann's "postsecular" vision, anticipating later postmodern thought, insisted that truth is not an abstract concept but personally embodied in God. This contrasts sharply with Pilate's cynical "What is truth?" and Harari's view of truth as useful fiction. For Hamann, extinguishing the light of Christ makes "all the colours of the most beautiful world grow pale," leaving a void that secular reason cannot fill.

A hopeful path. The Christian account of reality—that God is love, creation is good, humans bear His image, sin is forgivable, Christ is risen, and justice is coming—provides knowledge, dignity, providence, and hope. These truths, historically known as science, human rights, meaning, and progress, offer a compelling framework for a postsecular world. The church's opportunity is to faithfully live out and proclaim this "gracious truth," trusting that God will bring renewal, not from human strategies, but from His own initiative.