Graven Images

1. The Core Deception: Substitutes for True Morality

The striking point is that for many people those different norms function as substitutes for the categories of the morally good and evil.

False moral compass. Many individuals and communities unknowingly adopt "graven images" – false moral standards that replace authentic morality. These substitutes, such as honor, "the gentleman," or "the bien pensant," carry a moral connotation but are fundamentally flawed, containing extra-moral elements that distort true good and evil. They offer a seemingly clear code of conduct, but one that ultimately deviates from genuine moral principles.

Compromise with vice. Unlike outright rejection of morality, these substitutes represent a subconscious compromise between our innate moral sense and the pervasive influences of pride and concupiscence. They allow individuals to feel righteous and adhere to a "norm above them" without demanding the complete surrender of self-will or the rigorous pursuit of true virtue. This makes them appealing, as they offer a path of perceived goodness that is less challenging to our fallen nature.

Perversion of truth. While substitutes may include some faint reflection of natural moral law, they invariably pervert its true meaning. They preserve the formal eidos (the general form) of the moral sphere – the idea of an obligation, a conscience, a standard – but corrupt its qualitative content. This qualitative falsification means that what is genuinely good is often overlooked, while morally irrelevant or even evil actions are deemed acceptable under the guise of the substitute.

2. Distinguishing Substitutes from Amoral Ideals and Pathologies

Consequently, our first task will be to distinguish between substitutes for morality and anti- or a-moral ideals.

Not anti-moral. Substitutes for morality are distinct from anti-moral ideals, which actively declare war on morality itself. Think of Nietzsche's "superman" or Aristippus's hedonism; these philosophies explicitly reject the very existence of moral values or any norm above subjective satisfaction. They aim to oust morality, replacing it with something radically amoral, whereas substitutes merely distort it while retaining its formal appearance.

Beyond pathology. Furthermore, substitutes are not mere pathological deformations like irrational inhibitions or compulsions. While pathological states hinder freedom and lack objective validity, substitutes present themselves as objective "oughtness," appealing to conscience and free will. They are rationalized, albeit flawed, systems of belief, unlike the blunt, factual character of a psychological "must" or an idée fixe.

Formal eidos preserved. The crucial difference lies in the preservation of the "most formal eidos of the moral sphere." Substitutes, despite their perversions, still acknowledge:

• A norm above oneself.
• An obligation to obey.
• An appeal to conscience.
• The notion of guilt (even if misapplied).
  This formal recognition sets them apart from those who reject any moral framework whatsoever, making them a unique category of moral deformation.

3. The Role of Pride and Concupiscence in Moral Blindness

The real antithesis is between moral values and pride, precisely because pride is ultimately directed against God.

Root of distortion. Pride and concupiscence are the fundamental forces that blind individuals to true moral values and foster the creation of substitutes. Satanic pride, the most extreme form, leads to total value-blindness, perceiving all values as rivals to one's own glory and waging war against them, especially moral values which uniquely reflect God.

Selective blindness. Less virulent forms of pride and concupiscence, however, lead to partial moral value blindness. Individuals might grasp some extra-moral values (like intelligence or courage) but remain oblivious or hostile to moral ones. This selective blindness allows for a "compromise" where the moral value-responding center coexists with pride and concupiscence, leading to a distorted understanding of what is truly good.

Subconscious compromise. The formation of substitutes is often a subconscious process, a deep-seated compromise within the soul. The will to be morally good is present but restricted, conditioned by the underlying desire to spare pride or concupiscence. This means choosing an extra-moral value or a misinterpreted moral value as the guiding norm, precisely because it does not demand the complete abdication of self-will or sensual desires that true morality requires.

4. Extra-Moral Values Masquerading as Morality

Self-control is of course indispensable for virtue. If someone possesses self-control as a temperamental disposition, or has acquired it (yet not for moral motives), he may place it at the disposal of a morally good will, whenever the moral theme calls for it.

Not moral virtues. Many personal qualities, while valuable, are extra-moral and not moral virtues themselves. These include:

• Self-control: The ability to dominate passions and impulses.
• Energy: Drive and vigor in action.
• Courage: Fearlessness in the face of danger (physical or psychological).
  These are technical or qualitative values, representing an "immanent perfection" of a capacity, rather than a "transcendent" moral goodness.

Instrumental, not intrinsic. While indispensable for virtue, these extra-moral values are instrumental. A criminal with great self-control or courage is more wicked, not less, because these qualities enhance his capacity for evil. Their presence in a morally evil person does not create a contradiction, unlike a criminal showing compassion, which would be a "bright spot." This demonstrates their non-moral nature.

Deceptive appeal. These extra-moral values often become substitutes because they appeal to pride and concupiscence. Self-control, for instance, offers mastery over oneself, a sense of strength and superiority that can satisfy pride without requiring genuine humility or submission to God. Courage, too, can be pursued for fame or self-glorification, rather than for morally relevant goods, making it an attractive, yet ultimately false, moral standard.

5. Extra-Moral Aspects Corrupting Authentic Virtues

It is not difficult to see that this wideness, apart from its being an extra-moral value, is also something subjectively satisfying.

Twisted virtues. Even genuine moral virtues can be perverted when approached through their extra-moral aspects. Generosity, for example, possesses an extra-moral aspect of "breadth" or "uninhibitedness" that can be confused with the lighthearted prodigality of a "cicada." This aesthetic charm or sense of freedom can be subjectively satisfying to pride and concupiscence, leading to a misinterpretation of the virtue itself.

Self-serving interpretations. Reliability and loyalty, while moral virtues, also have extra-moral aspects like "seriousness" or "usefulness" for society. An immoral person might value these qualities in others for their utility, or in themselves for the "aureola of honorableness" they confer, which caters to pride. This focus on external benefits or social image distorts the intrinsic moral worth of these virtues.

"Noble" and "Base" as examples. The distinction between "noble" and "base" often becomes a substitute, driven by an extra-moral aspect. "Meanness" has a specific ugliness or "bad odor" that hurts self-esteem, making its avoidance appealing to pride. However, not all immoral acts are "base" (e.g., Othello's murder), and some morally harmless acts can be "base" (e.g., a petty deception for a good impression). This highlights how an aesthetic or self-esteem-driven aspect can overshadow true moral judgment.

6. Formal Substitutes: Tradition and State Law

The formal eidos of the moral sphere is deprived of its real absoluteness; it is in some way conventionalized.

Tradition as norm. For many, tradition becomes the ultimate moral norm, equating "morally right" with "what tradition prescribes." This elevates human heritage to the status of divine law, confusing the venerableness of the past with the majesty of intrinsic moral obligation. While tradition has value as a cultural channel and a dimension of community, it is not a source of moral truth.

State law as morality. Similarly, state laws can become a substitute, where "morality" is identified with "loyalty to the state." This reduces the moral sphere to legalistic compliance, overlooking moral values not covered by law (e.g., charity, humility) and elevating morally irrelevant legal prescriptions. The state's legitimate authority is clothed in the vestments of morality, but its laws, by nature, cannot encompass the full depth of moral truth.

Emasculation of morality. Both tradition and state law, when serving as formal substitutes, inevitably "emasculate" the moral norm. The "breath of eternity" and categorical "oughtness" of true morality are replaced by a merely human or conventional authority. This formal deformation means that even when the content of the substitute aligns with true morality, the reason for adherence is flawed, corroding the authentic understanding and response to moral values.

7. Honor: The Pervasive and Complex Substitute

Honor has meaning only in time, none in eternity.

Objective shield. Honor is a complex, objective good for the person, acting as a "shield" reflecting one's worthiness of self-esteem and social esteem. It's not a mere fiction or feeling, but a reality that can be stained from within (one's own dishonorable actions) or from without (others' ignominy, insults). However, honor is not coextensive with morality; some moral evils don't stain honor, and some non-moral acts do.

No divine connection. Crucially, honor has no intrinsic relation to God. It is concerned with one's image in the eyes of oneself and society, not with one's standing before God. This temporal, intra-human, and social character fundamentally separates it from moral integrity, which is inherently related to God. A man might seek God's pardon for a sin, but the stain on his honor remains, often requiring self-cleansing or acceptance as deserved humiliation.

Pride's allure. Honor is a prime substitute because its "unspottedness" strongly appeals to pride. It offers a sense of dignity and integrity that satisfies a mitigated pride without demanding the full humility of true moral submission. This compromise leads to a formal perversion, replacing objective moral goodness (pleasing to God) with a shield dependent on self-esteem and social approval, inevitably leveling down the true majesty of the moral sphere.

8. Naive vs. Heretic Substitutes: Degrees of Conscious Distortion

The difference between naive and heretic substitutes refers to an intrinsic difference of mentality which can be found in different stages of civilization.

Naive confusion. Naive substitutes arise from an incapacity to clearly distinguish between moral and extra-moral values, often found in primitive societies or less developed mentalities. Examples include identifying self-control or courage with moral goodness. These substitutes are:

• Less conscious in their formation.
• Lack an antithetic or polemic character against other moral views.
• Typically elevate an extra-moral value to represent morality.

Heretic protest. Heretic substitutes, in contrast, are more conscious distortions, often found in highly civilized contexts, and imply a kind of "apostasy" from previously known moral truth. They result from:

• Isolation and overemphasis: Picking one specific moral value (e.g., altruism, warmth of heart) and making it the sole moral good.
• Aggressive opposition: Actively opposing other moral values as "false" or "selfish."
• Poisoning by pride: Often driven by self-righteousness or a revolt against moral authority.
  These substitutes are characterized by a "protest" and a qualitative perversion of the chosen moral value itself.

Decadent selection. A third category, "decadent substitutes," shares traits with heretic ones. These involve an illegitimate selection of a specific moral value (e.g., "genuineness," "nobleness") to be the core of morality. This choice, while not necessarily derived from Christian virtues, presupposes knowledge of the broader moral sphere and implies a gesture of brushing aside other moral values, often appealing to pride through extra-moral aspects.

9. The Dual Nature of Substitutes: Harmful Yet Relatively Better

Imperfect as it is, wrong and perverted as it is, it still has a positive function, and must be considered at least as a minus malum.

Profound disvalue. Substitutes are grave moral deformations. They introduce extra-moral elements into the moral sphere, arbitrarily restrict the scope of morality, and can even lead to immoral actions being deemed obligatory (e.g., dueling for honor). The ethos they foster is infected, lacking the "breath of eternity" and the noble beauty of true moral values, often leading to a superficial or conventionalized understanding of good.

A "lesser evil." Despite their inherent flaws, substitutes hold a "relative value" compared to outright amoral or anti-moral ideals, or complete moral indifference. They are a minus malum (lesser evil). For instance, a man adhering to the substitute of honor, who abstains from many evils due to it, is morally preferable to a gangster who acknowledges no norm.

Protective function. Substitutes serve a positive function by providing a framework that protects communities from anarchy and chaos. Honor, tradition, and respect for state laws, even if flawed, prevent widespread moral decay. They ensure the omission of many evil actions and encourage some objectively good ones, even if the underlying motives are impure. It is better to have a distorted moral compass than none at all, unless the substitute is replaced by true morality.

10. Christian Morality: The True Standard and Its Unique Demands

In the Christian revelation sacredness and moral goodness interpenetrate each other still more intimately in the datum of “holiness.”

Holiness: Sacred Morality. Christian morality reveals a unique interpenetration of moral goodness and divinity in the concept of "holiness." Unlike other religions where morality might be a prerequisite or a set of external rules, in Christianity, moral goodness is a property of God Himself. Justice, mercy, and charity are woven into God's awe-inspiring majesty, making holiness both sacred and inherently moral.

Absolute Thematicity. This divine interpenetration makes morality an absolute and central theme in the Christian life. The goal is similitudo Dei (likeness to God) and transformation in Christ, which is synonymous with sanctification. This means:

• Positive perfection: Striving for holiness, not just avoiding sin.
• Continuous cooperation: An ongoing, lifelong task, never fully concluded.
• Unlimited scope: Embracing all aspects of life, not just specific commandments.
  The two great commandments of Christ (love of God and neighbor) are positive and encompass the entire law, elevating morality beyond mere prohibitions.

Extended Moral Relevance. Christian morality extends moral relevance to all domains of human life, even those naturally extra-moral. As stewards of God's gifts, Christians are responsible for:

• Talents: Using intellectual or artistic gifts for God's glory.
• Health: Caring for the body as a temple of the Holy Spirit.
• Professions: Choosing work in accordance with God's will.
  Activities like eating, enduring pain, or professional work gain moral significance when performed with an attitude of religio, gratitude, or ad majorem Dei gloriam. This deepens the distinction between moral and extra-moral spheres while bringing all aspects of life into a vital relationship with God.

Last updated: January 14, 2026