Cod

1. Cod Fueled Early European Exploration and Settlement of North America

Cod, it turns out, is the reason Europeans set sail across the Atlantic, and it is the only reason they could.

Viking sustenance. Long before Columbus, Vikings like Erik the Red and Leif Eiriksson ventured across the North Atlantic, sustained by dried cod. This "woodlike plank" of preserved fish, losing four-fifths of its weight, provided a durable, nutritious food source for their arduous journeys to Iceland, Greenland, and even America. This early preservation method, though lacking salt, was crucial for long-distance maritime exploration in harsh northern climates.

Cabot's discovery. John Cabot's 1497 voyage, initially seeking a route to Asia, instead "discovered" a vast, rocky coastline (Newfoundland) teeming with cod. His reports of fish so plentiful they could be scooped into baskets ignited a "cod rush" among European nations. This abundance, far exceeding anything in European waters, shifted the focus of transatlantic voyages from purely exploratory to commercially driven fishing expeditions, laying the groundwork for future colonization.

Newfoundland's allure. The sheer density and size of North American cod stocks, with reports of five-foot fish, drew fleets from France, Portugal, and England. These rich fishing grounds, particularly the Grand Banks, became a primary destination, establishing a seasonal European presence in the New World centuries before permanent settlements took root. The promise of cod, a highly profitable commodity, was a powerful magnet for European ambition and capital.

2. The Basque Secret: Salt Cod's Medieval Economic Revolution

The Basques, unlike the Vikings, had salt, and because fish that was salted before drying lasted longer, the Basques could travel even farther than the Vikings.

Basque innovation. The enigmatic Basques, with their unique language and seafaring tradition, revolutionized cod preservation by combining salting with drying. This technique created a remarkably durable product that could withstand long voyages and hot climates, significantly expanding the market for cod beyond its northern habitat. Their secret, an "unlimited supply of cod" from unknown distant waters, made them wealthy and influential in medieval Europe.

Catholic demand. The medieval Catholic Church's imposition of "lean days"—nearly half the year—on which meat was forbidden, created an immense demand for "cold" foods like fish. Salt cod became a religious icon, a mythological crusader for Christian observance. The Basques capitalized on this, selling vast quantities of their cured cod, which was superior to other salted fish like herring due to its low fat content and better taste after rehydration.

Market expansion. By the year 1000, Basque salt cod had established a truly international trade, reaching far into southern Europe. This profitable commodity spurred other European nations, like Bristol merchants, to seek new cod grounds, eventually leading to the "discovery" of North America's rich fisheries. The Basques' economic power, built on this trade, allowed them to maintain their stubborn independence despite centuries of attempts by surrounding empires to assimilate them.

3. Cod's Biological Abundance Led to a False Sense of Inexhaustibility

It has been calculated that if no accident prevented the hatching of the eggs and each egg reached maturity, it would take only three years to fill the sea so that you could walk across the Atlantic dryshod on the backs of cod.

Prolific breeder. The Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, was considered virtually inexhaustible due to its astonishing reproductive capacity. A single large female cod could produce up to nine million eggs in one spawning season. This immense fecundity, coupled with its resilience to disease and cold, and its omnivorous diet, made it seem like an endless resource, leading to centuries of unchecked fishing.

Easy to catch. Cod's behavior made it an ideal commercial fish. It preferred shallow waters, migrated close to shore for spawning, and was notoriously greedy, swimming with its mouth open and swallowing almost anything. This made it easy to catch with simple handlines, traps, and later, more advanced gear. The perception of endless supply was reinforced by consistently large catches, even as fishing methods became more efficient.

Scientific misjudgment. Nineteenth-century scientific thought, influenced by figures like Thomas Henry Huxley, dismissed concerns about overfishing. Huxley argued that nature's resilience would always prevent permanent exhaustion, a view that permeated government policy for decades. This belief, coupled with increasing catches due to improved technology rather than actual stock abundance, delayed recognition of the impending crisis, setting the stage for future collapse.

4. New England's Prosperity Was Built on the Cod Trade

The major part inclined to go to Plymouth, chiefly for the hope of present profit to be made by the fish that was found in that country.

Pilgrim's choice. The Pilgrims, initially ill-equipped for fishing, chose New England primarily for its abundant cod. Despite early struggles and near starvation, they gradually learned to fish, establishing stations in places like Gloucester and Marblehead. By 1640, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was exporting 300,000 cod, transforming the region from a struggling settlement into a thriving commercial hub.

Economic independence. New England's unique climate, offering both inshore winter fishing and offshore summer seasons, combined with arable land, fostered a diverse economy. Unlike Newfoundland, which remained a seasonal fishing outpost, Massachusetts developed communities with coopers, blacksmiths, and shipbuilders. This economic self-sufficiency, fueled by cod trade with Europe and the West Indies, bred a fiercely independent and prosperous merchant class, resentful of British colonial monopolies.

Symbol of wealth. Cod became a fetish in Massachusetts, symbolizing the wealth of the "codfish aristocracy." It appeared on official crests, early American coins, and even adorned the Massachusetts State House. This reverence for cod underscored its central role in New England's rise, making it a powerful symbol of economic freedom and a driving force behind the American Revolution, as merchants fought for the right to control their own lucrative trade.

5. The Cod Trade's Dark Side: Fueling the Transatlantic Slave Economy

Shipments of salt cod followed, and soon salt cod, slaves, and molasses became commercially linked.

Caribbean demand. The labor-intensive sugar plantations of the West Indies, reliant on enslaved African labor, created a massive demand for cheap, high-protein food. Plantation owners, unwilling to use valuable land for food crops, turned to New England's salt cod. This "West India cure," often the lowest quality rejects from the Mediterranean market, became the staple diet for hundreds of thousands of enslaved people, linking cod directly to the brutal plantation system.

Triangular trade. New England merchants quickly established a lucrative triangular trade route. They sold their best cod in Spain for wine and other goods, then sailed to the West Indies to sell cheaper cod and Spanish goods for sugar, molasses, and salt. The molasses was then brought back to New England to fuel a booming rum industry. This rum, along with salt cod, became a currency for purchasing enslaved Africans in West Africa, completing the cycle.

Moral contradiction. Alexis de Tocqueville noted the inherent contradiction in New England's character: a champion of individual liberty that simultaneously profited immensely from slavery. While openly denouncing slavery, New England's economy grew affluent by supplying the very system that perpetuated it. This economic entanglement highlights how deeply the cod trade was interwoven with the transatlantic slave trade, a dark chapter in its history.

6. Technological Advancements Escalated the Race to Deplete Cod Stocks

Once motor ships replaced sail and oar, fishing no longer had to be done with “passive gear”—equipment that waited for the fish. Fish could now be pursued.

End of sail. For centuries, fishing methods remained largely unchanged, but the early 20th century brought rapid technological shifts. The steam engine, initially slow to be adopted for distant water fleets due to cost, eventually replaced sail power. This marked the end of an era, as exemplified by the Theresa E. Connor, Lunenburg's last fishing schooner, which was decommissioned in 1963 due to inability to find a crew.

Rise of trawling. Engine power enabled the widespread adoption of bottom trawling, a method where large nets are dragged along the ocean floor. Innovations like the otter trawl (1892) and later rockhoppers and tickler chains dramatically increased catch efficiency. These powerful vessels could systematically clean out entire areas, leading to unprecedented quantities of fish being landed, often six times more than sail ships.

Freezing and factory ships. Clarence Birdseye's freezing technology (1920s) revolutionized the market, allowing fish to be transported fresh to inland areas and creating new products like fish fillets and fish sticks. Combined with filleting machines and the development of huge factory ships during WWII, these innovations enabled continuous, large-scale processing at sea. This relentless pursuit, driven by ever-increasing market demand and technological capacity, pushed cod stocks towards depletion.

7. Iceland's Cod Wars: A Small Nation's Fight for Its Marine Sovereignty

Claims to exercise exclusive jurisdiction in relation to fishing in areas outside the normal limits of territorial waters are wholly unwarranted under international law.

Post-war nationalism. After gaining full independence from Denmark in 1944, Iceland, a nation whose economy was entirely dependent on cod, sought to protect its vital resource. In 1950, it boldly extended its territorial fishing limit from three to four miles, challenging the long-held international principle of open seas. This was a modest but significant step towards asserting control over its continental shelf.

Escalating conflicts. As British and German trawlers continued to deplete Icelandic stocks, Iceland further extended its limit to twelve miles in 1958, triggering the first of three "Cod Wars" with Britain. These conflicts, though bloodless, involved tense naval maneuvers and the deployment of innovative "trawl wire cutters" by the Icelandic Coast Guard. The British, initially dismissive, eventually conceded the twelve-mile limit in 1961.

200-mile zone. Inspired by the US's 1945 proclamation on continental shelf resources, and facing continued stock declines, Iceland declared a fifty-mile limit in 1972, and then a 200-mile exclusive economic zone in 1975. This final, decisive move, despite strong opposition from European powers, ultimately gained international acceptance and became a global standard. Iceland's unwavering stance demonstrated that a small nation could successfully defend its natural resources against larger, more powerful states.

8. The Grand Banks Collapse: A Stark Warning of Commercial Extinction

Canadian cod was not yet biologically extinct, but it was commercially extinct—so rare that it could no longer be considered commercially viable.

Misguided policy. After establishing its 200-mile limit in 1977, Canada aimed to build a profitable national fishery on the Grand Banks. Government bailouts and investments in huge offshore trawlers led to a boom in catches, but this was due to increased efficiency, not stock abundance. Inshore fishermen's warnings about dwindling stocks were ignored, as the government prioritized the success of its large-scale industrial fishery.

The moratorium. Despite rising catches and optimistic government reports, the northern cod stock off Newfoundland was in precipitous decline. In July 1992, just three years shy of the 500-year anniversary of Cabot's reports, the Canadian government declared a moratorium on northern cod fishing, putting 30,000 fishermen out of work. This marked the commercial extinction of a species that had sustained communities for half a millennium.

Economic and social fallout. The moratorium devastated Newfoundland's economy, closing processing plants and leaving thousands unemployed. The once-thriving fishing ports, like Petty Harbour, struggled to adapt. The crisis exposed the profound disconnect between scientific warnings, fishermen's observations, and political decisions, highlighting the catastrophic consequences of prioritizing short-term economic gains over long-term ecological sustainability.

9. Nature's Uncertain Resilience: The Lingering Question of Cod's Return

When you get to zero, it will produce zero. How much above zero still produces zero is not known.

Unpredictable recovery. While some hope for cod's return, scientists are uncertain about the exact conditions required for population regeneration. Miracles and disasters occur in nature, and factors like winter storms can decimate larvae. Although decimated stocks have recovered in other regions, like Norway, the Canadian situation is complicated by the severity of the decline and the potential for political pressure to reopen fishing prematurely.

Ecological shifts. The absence of cod has led to significant changes in the marine ecosystem. Other species, such as snow crab and shrimp, have expanded their range and become profitable, but this doesn't guarantee cod's return. There's concern that new predators or competitors, like rays, skates, and arctic cod, may move into the vacant niche, making it harder for Atlantic cod to re-establish dominance.

Altered behavior. Surviving northern cod have shown alarming changes:

• Reaching sexual maturity younger and smaller.
• Spawning in unusually cold water.
• Cessation of their traditional 500-mile seasonal migration.
  These aberrations suggest a deeply disturbed population, raising questions about whether the genetic diversity and leadership necessary for a full recovery still exist.

10. The Future of Fishing: From Wild Harvest to Managed Resources

Who is going to look after the sea if the fishermen are gone?

Global crisis. Overfishing is a worldwide problem, with 60% of tracked fish types categorized as fully exploited, overexploited, or depleted. The collapse of the Grand Banks cod is not an isolated incident but a stark example of a global trend. As traditional stocks vanish, fishermen are exploring deeper waters for new species, often with unknown ecological consequences and rapid depletion rates.

Management challenges. The shift to 200-mile exclusive economic zones has transferred management responsibility to individual nations, but effective conservation remains elusive. Quota systems, often influenced by politics, have proven difficult to enforce, leading to widespread discarding of dead, unwanted fish. The inherent conflict between maximizing catch and ensuring sustainability continues to plague fisheries management globally.

Beyond wild catch. With wild stocks dwindling, aquaculture, or fish farming, is growing. While offering a potential alternative, it presents its own challenges:

• High costs compared to wild catch.
• Reliance on fish meal from other wild species.
• Concerns about genetic defects and escapees mingling with wild populations.
  The future of seafood may involve a complex mix of highly regulated wild fisheries, sustainable aquaculture, and a re-evaluation of our relationship with marine ecosystems, moving away from the "last gatherers of food from the wild" towards more conscious stewardship.

Last updated: August 31, 2025