A Study of History, abridged

1. Civilizations are the primary units of historical study, but not self-contained.

The intelligible units of historical study are not nations or periods but ‘societies’.

Defining societies. To truly understand history, one must look beyond the narrow confines of national histories, which are often unintelligible on their own. Instead, the proper unit of study is a "society" or "civilization," a larger whole encompassing multiple nations that share common stimuli but may react in diverse ways. For instance, England's history is best understood as part of Western Christendom.

Apparentation and affiliation. Civilizations are not isolated entities but are often linked through a process called "apparentation-and-affiliation." This relationship is marked by the disintegration of an older, "parented" civilization, which gives rise to a new, "affiliated" one. Key indicators of this transition include:

• The emergence of a universal state (e.g., the Roman Empire)
• A subsequent interregnum or "Time of Troubles"
• The birth of a universal church from the internal proletariat
• A "Völkerwanderung" (migration of peoples) by barbarian war-bands from the external proletariat

Beyond single units. While civilizations are intelligible units for studying their genesis, growth, and breakdown, their final phase of disintegration cannot be understood in isolation. External forces and interactions with other contemporary or past civilizations become paramount, revealing that the historical narrative is far more interconnected than initially assumed.

2. Universal States are temporary 'Indian Summers' that serve unintended purposes.

They are not summers but ‘Indian summers’, masking autumn and presaging winter.

A temporary rally. Universal states, like the Roman Empire or the Arab Caliphate, emerge after a civilization's breakdown, bringing political unity to a "Time of Troubles." They represent a notable rally in a process of disintegration, offering a period of peace and stability. However, this stability is often a mirage, as these states are products of dominant minorities that have lost their creative power, clinging to life with "obstinate longevity" rather than true vitality.

Mirage of immortality. Citizens of these universal states often believe in their eternal nature, even when faced with clear signs of decline. This belief, exemplified by Roman assertions of an "empire without end" or the Ottoman Empire's enduring symbolic power, persists long after effective sovereignty has waned. This psychological universality, rather than geographical, allows their "ghosts" to be evoked centuries later, as seen with the Holy Roman Empire.

Unintended beneficiaries. Despite their conscious purpose to preserve themselves, universal states invariably fail in the long run. Yet, they serve as crucial "means to some end that is outside and beyond them." Their institutions, such as communication networks, garrisons, provinces, and legal systems, become highly "conductive" mediums. This inadvertently facilitates the spread of higher religions, which are the true beneficiaries, thriving in the pacific atmosphere and utilizing the infrastructure for their own growth.

3. Universal Churches are a higher species of society, born from civilizational breakdown.

The distinguishing mark of the Churches is that they all have as a member the One True God.

Beyond cancer or chrysalis. While some view churches as "cancers" consuming civilizations or "chrysalises" preserving life between civilizations, a deeper perspective reveals them as a distinct, higher species of society. They emerge from the internal proletariat during a civilization's disintegration, offering new channels for baulked human energies and providing spiritual meaning where secular structures fail.

Spiritual unity and progress. Unlike civilizations, which are multiple and repetitive, the history of Religion appears unitary and progressive. The four living higher religions—Christianity, Mahāyāna, Islam, and Hinduism—share a closer affinity among themselves than coeval civilizations. They represent variations on a single theme, each offering a unique vision of God and a path to salvation, reflecting the diversity of the human psyche.

Future of religious unity. The notion of indefinite religious parochialism becomes absurd in the long view of human history. The future may see a unified human race finding salvation in religious unity, where diverse denominations recognize their common ground. This would involve:

• Overcoming intolerance, especially from Judaic-origin religions.
• Reconciling "Heart and Head" by surrendering intellectual provinces to science while retaining spiritual insight.
• Growing together into a single Church Militant, acknowledging the diversity of God's human worshippers.

4. Spiritual progress often arises from suffering and civilizational decline.

If we apply this intuition of the nature of spiritual life to a spiritual endeavour that culminated in the flowering of Christianity and her sister higher religions, the Mahāyāna, Islam, and Hinduism, we may discern in the passions of Tammuz and Attis and Adonis and Osiris a foreshadowing of the Passion of Christ.

Learning by suffering. Spiritual progress is profoundly linked to suffering, a "law" proclaimed by Aeschylus. The successive rises and falls of civilizations, particularly their breakdowns and disintegrations, serve as the means by which the "chariot of Religion" is carried forward. These periods of secular catastrophe become crucibles for spiritual growth.

Epiphanies in decline. The great milestones in humanity's spiritual advance—Abraham, Moses, the Hebrew Prophets, and Christ—all coincide with periods of secular breakdown and societal distress. For example:

• Abraham's call followed the collapse of the Sumeric universal state.
• Moses' mission rescued the Israelites from the internal proletariat of the 'New Empire' of Egypt.
• The Hebrew Prophets emerged during the last throes of the Syriac "Time of Troubles."
• Christ's ministry unfolded amidst the anguish of the Hellenic "Time of Troubles."
  These spiritual illuminations are not merely advances but often recoveries from spiritual eclipses, provoked by the "miasma of worldly prosperity" that stupefies the masses.

Redemption of history. From this perspective, the mundane failures of civilizations are redeemed by their spiritual sequels. The "sorrowful wheel" of birth-death-birth in civilizations promotes the ascent of religion towards Heaven. This view suggests that Man's fragmentary participation in terrestrial history gains meaning when seen as a co-adjutor of God, whose mastery gives divine value to human endeavors.

5. Heroic Ages are destructive interludes, romanticized by epic poetry.

In the enchanted realm of this poetry the barbarian conquistadores achieve vicariously the splendour that eluded their grasp in real life.

The bursting barrage. An "Heroic Age" is the social and psychological aftermath of a military "limes" (frontier) collapsing between a disintegrating civilization and its external barbarians. This "social barrage" creates a reservoir of psychic energy among the barbarians, who, influenced by the civilization they are barred from, adopt its military techniques and eventually break through. This release of pent-up forces leads to a threefold catastrophe: destruction of civilized works, loss of life-giving potential, and demoralization of the barbarians themselves.

Demoralization and myth. The triumphant barbarians, like "vultures feeding on carrion," are ill-equipped to govern. Their sudden freedom from the discipline of the limes leads to moral breakdown, characterized by "orgies of idleness" and "wholesale atrocities." Yet, this agony also inspires epic poetry, which transmutes their wickedness and ineptitude into "immortal romance."

• Examples: Beowulf, Siegfried, Homeric epics.
• Ideals: Homeric Aidôs and Nemesis (shame and indignation), Umayyad Hilm (self-restraint).
  These ideals, though noble, are often insufficient to curb the "rapacious beast" of barbarian honor.

Ephemeral triumphs. Heroic ages are intrinsically transient, marked by sudden falls from apparent omnipotence, as seen with the Huns after Attila or the Vandals after Genseric. These warlords are incapable of creating lasting institutions. While they provide a tenuous link between defunct and nascent civilizations (e.g., Achaeans linking Minoan to Hellenic), their cultural contribution is modest compared to that of universal churches.

6. Encounters between civilizations are crucial for understanding historical development.

On the strength of this evidence, we may venture to propound a ‘law’ to the effect that, for a study of the higher religions, the minimum intelligible field must be larger than the domain of any single civilization, since it must be a field in which two or more civilizations have encountered each other.

Crossroads of faith. The geographical clustering of higher religions' birthplaces in "round-about" regions like Syria and the Oxus-Jaxartes Basin is no accident. These areas, serving as traffic centers for converging routes, facilitated intense inter-civilizational encounters. This constant interaction explains the extraordinary concentration of spiritual epiphanies within their limits.

The Modern West's global impact. The "modern" chapter of Western history, beginning in the late 15th century with oceanic navigation and the break-up of medieval Christendom, initiated a worldwide series of encounters. The West's technological prowess and cultural radiation profoundly affected all other living societies, often turning their lives "upside down." This global reach makes the Modern West's interactions with its contemporaries a crucial, though unfinished, field of study.

Unfinished stories. Unlike past encounters, such as Hellenism's impact on its contemporaries, the story of the Modern West's influence is still unfolding. The 460 years from Columbus's voyage to 1952 are comparable to the period from Alexander's crossing to 126 AD in Hellenic history, a time when Christianity's future triumph was still unforeseeable. This highlights the historian's challenge in interpreting contemporary events, which are "least illuminating" for understanding long-term outcomes.

7. Civilizations respond to external challenges through Zealotism, Herodianism, or Evangelism.

Paul was brought up in a Gentile Tarsus as a Pharisee—a cultural isolationist—and at the same time and place he received a Greek education and found himself a Roman citizen. The Zealot and the Herodian path thus both lay open in front of him, and as a young man he opted for Zealotism. But, when he was plucked out of this perverse initial Zealot course by his vision on the road to Damascus, he did not become an Herodian. There was revealed to him a creative way which transcended both these other two courses.

Two primary responses. When a civilization is challenged by an alien culture, its members typically adopt one of two psychological responses:

• Zealotism: A defiant rejection of the aggressor's culture, seeking refuge in ancestral traditions and often resorting to self-isolation or open warfare (e.g., Jewish Zealots against Hellenism, Japanese isolationism).
• Herodianism: An opportunistic adoption and imitation of the aggressor's ways, aiming to fight the assailant with their own weapons (e.g., Herod the Great, Norman adoption of Western culture, Japanese Westernization post-Meiji).

The transcendent third way. Both Zealotism and Herodianism, while seemingly antithetical, often lead to self-defeat or partial success. Zealotism risks sterility or violent destruction, while Herodianism can result in a mere parody or a loss of original identity. However, a third, creative path exists: Evangelism. This involves transcending both extremes by drawing on the spiritual wealth of contending cultures to forge a new way of life, as exemplified by Saint Paul, who synthesized Jewish and Hellenic elements into Christianity.

Ambivalence and complexity. In practice, these responses are rarely pure. Figures like Lenin and Gandhi, while condemning the West, incorporated Western elements into their ideologies. Zionism, too, showed ambivalence, rejecting assimilation while adopting Western nationalism. This complexity underscores that the true spiritual consequences of encounters are often found in the individual soul's journey, rather than in clear-cut socio-political policies.

8. Renaissances are abnormal, often unwholesome, revivals of dead cultures.

The trouble about all revivals or renaissances is that they are not, and in the nature of things cannot be, ‘the genuine article’. They differ from the genuine article very much as the waxworks at Madame Tussaud’s differ from the people who pass through the turnstiles to look at them.

Ghosts of the past. Renaissances are distinct from the normal "apparentation-and-affiliation" between successive civilizations and from "archaism" (reverting to an earlier phase of one's own society). They involve a "necromancy"—the calling up of a "ghost" of a long-dead parent civilization. These revivals, though common, are often "unwholesome" because they are artificial imitations rather than organic growth.

Political and cultural manifestations. Renaissances manifest across various domains:

• Political: Resuscitation of the Hellenic city-state in medieval Italy, or the Roman Empire under Charlemagne and Otto III. These often lead to tyranny or anachronistic political structures.
• Legal: Revival of Roman Law (Justinian's Code) in both Orthodox and Western Christendom, influencing new legal systems and state formation.
• Philosophical: The re-establishment of Confucian philosophy in the Far Eastern society or Aristotelian philosophy in Western Christendom. These can lead to intellectual subservience or internal conflict with native thought.
• Linguistic and Literary: Efforts to revive classical languages and literatures, often patronized by rulers of resuscitated universal states (e.g., Chinese emperors, Charlemagne). These can enrich vernaculars but also sterilize original creation.
• Visual Arts: Revival of Hellenic styles in Western architecture, sculpture, and painting, often displacing native artistic genius and leading to periods of aesthetic vacuum.

Sterilization of genius. The pervasive nature of renaissances, particularly the Hellenic one in the West, often stifles native creativity. Artists and thinkers become preoccupied with imitating past masters, leading to a "sterilizing" effect. The true value of a renaissance lies not in perfect imitation, but in its ability to inspire new, original developments, as seen in the eventual emergence of genuinely new artistic and scientific movements.

9. History is governed by both the inexorable 'Laws of Nature' and the 'Law of God' (Freedom).

History is,… above everything else, a call, a vocation, a dispensation to be heard and responded to by free human beings—in short, the interaction of God and Man.

Two kinds of law. Human affairs are subject to two distinct types of law:

• Laws of Nature: Impersonal, uniform, and inexorable, governing the physical universe and, to some extent, human collective behavior (e.g., trade cycles, generation cycles). These are ascertainable by human intelligence, offering knowledge and power.
• Law of God: The "perfect law of liberty" and "law of Love," expressing the will of an omnipotent God. This law is unpredictable and inscrutable, requiring faith, hope, and fear, rather than scientific certainty.

Beyond antinomianism. Modern Western historians, influenced by scientific rationalism, often reject the idea of a "Law of God" in history, viewing it as a chaotic succession of "one damned thing after another." However, this antinomianism overlooks the underlying patterns and rhythms discernible in history, such as the cyclical nature of war-and-peace or the uniform process of civilizational disintegration. These regularities suggest deeper, perhaps subconscious, psychological laws at play.

Freedom within limits. While Man cannot alter the "Laws of Nature," he can affect their incidence by steering his course to harness them for his purposes. This control is evident in technological advancements that reduce risks (e.g., insurance, medicine). However, the "Law of God" offers a different kind of freedom—the freedom to choose between Life and Good, or Death and Evil, by aligning one's will with God's. This spiritual freedom is precarious, depending on self-control and unity, and its exercise is the ultimate determinant of human destiny.

10. The Western Civilization faces unprecedented challenges, with its fate tied to all Mankind.

In a Third World War fought with atomic or bacteriological weapons it seemed improbable that the Angel of Death would overlook even those nooks and corners of Man’s terrestrial habitat which, till recently, had been either so uninviting or so inaccessible, or both, as to give their poor, weak, backward inhabitants a virtual immunity against the unwelcome attentions of ‘civilized’ militarists.

A unique predicament. The Western civilization, unlike its predecessors, stands at a unique historical juncture. It is the only extant civilization not showing clear signs of disintegration, yet its global expansion and unprecedented mastery over non-human nature have brought all other societies into a "world-encompassing Westernizing ambit." This has gathered "all Mankind’s eggs into one precious and precarious basket," making its fate inextricably linked to that of the entire human race.

Twin evils amplified. The core challenges of war and class-conflict, which have destroyed past civilizations, are now amplified by modern technology. Atomic weapons make a "knock-out blow" potentially suicidal for all, forcing a re-evaluation of traditional warfare. Class-conflict is intensified by the stark contrast between mechanized abundance and persistent poverty, fueling demands for "freedom from want" across a global internal proletariat.

The price of progress. Technology, while offering immense potential for material well-being, also imposes regimentation, threatening to "robotize" both workers and the middle class. The global population explosion, driven by traditional peasant breeding habits and lowered death rates, threatens to outstrip food supply, potentially leading to a "great famine" and necessitating unprecedented controls over procreation. These challenges demand profound spiritual changes, as material solutions alone are insufficient.

A spiritual turning point. The Western civilization's future hinges on its ability to overcome its idolization of the parochial state and its secular focus, and to rediscover a spiritual purpose. The persistent vitality of Christianity, despite intellectual rejection, offers a potential source of "psychic energy" to address these challenges. The choice between a catastrophic future and a "World Society" free from war and class-conflict, where leisure is used for spiritual growth, remains open, a "perilous transition" akin to Kon-Tiki approaching the Raroia Reef.

Last updated: January 15, 2026