Key Takeaways
1. The Clave: The Foundational Concept of Afro-Caribbean Music
The most important advice this author can give is not to become "obsessed" with the clave.
Clave is multifaceted. The clave is not merely an instrument or a rhythmic pattern; it is a fundamental concept underpinning the "correct" interpretation of Afro-Caribbean music. Originating from West and Central African traditions, various clave patterns, like the 6/8 clave, Son clave, and Rumba clave, dictate the rhythmic, melodic, and harmonic design of the music. Understanding its binary phrase structure—a strong, syncopated measure followed by a weak, relaxed one—is crucial.
Clave's rhythmic function. Every instrument's pattern in Afro-Cuban music is shaped by the clave. Generally, two-measure patterns emphasize downbeats on the "two-side" and upbeats on the "three-side" of the clave. However, one-measure patterns or arpeggiated figures without syncopation can be considered "neutral" and played regardless of clave direction. The clave also subtly influences melodic phrasing and harmonic movement, particularly in the I-IV-V-IV progression, which typically aligns with a two-three clave.
"In clave" vs. "off clave." To be "in clave" means all musical elements align with the clave, creating a cohesive sound. Playing "off clave" (montado, atravesado, cruzado) results in a jarring discrepancy, intolerable to experienced ears. While "jumping the clave" (intentionally shifting direction, often due to an odd number of measures or a musical break) is sometimes necessary for flow, playing consistently "off clave" is unacceptable. The clave is a state of mind, a guiding reference that inspires rather than limits improvisation.
2. Piano's Historical Journey: From European Danzón to Cuban Son
It is the tres which literally shaped the piano's role within the structure of Cuban popular music in the early 1940s, when the piano would be officially incorporated into dance band format known as the conjunto.
European roots. The piano's early role in Cuban music was deeply rooted in the Western classical tradition, mirroring European trends like the Spanish zarzuela. Composers like Manuel Saumell and Ignacio Cervantes pioneered Creole styles such as the contradanza and danza, incorporating African rhythmic concepts and foreshadowing the habanera and danzón. These early works, often for solo piano, show rhythmic similarities to North American Ragtime.
Danzón's evolution. The danzón, Cuba's national dance, evolved from the contradanza, initially performed by orquesta típica and later the charanga francesa. Its structure (ABAC) expanded significantly in the late 1930s with Orestes and Israel "Cachao" López's "nuevo ritmo" section, later called mambo. This new "D" section introduced a syncopated piano montuno over a dominant vamp, allowing for improvisation and marking a shift from elaborate classical piano parts to more rhythmic, groove-oriented playing.
The Son's influence. The Cuban son, a synthesis of African and Spanish cultures, became the most important ancestor of popular Afro-Caribbean music. Its traditional instrumentation (tres, bongos, claves, maracas, güiro, vocals, bass instruments) laid the groundwork for the piano's eventual inclusion. The tres, a three-note guitar, directly influenced piano voicings and its percussive, improvisational role, providing melodic, harmonic, and ostinato figures that the piano would later adopt in the conjunto format of the 1940s.
3. Mastering Basic Son Montunos and Essential Harmonic Progressions
The secret to playing in this very traditional style is in the artful combination of variations, so that phrases are created, giving the impression that there is more to the pattern than there really is.
Son montuno fundamentals. The son-montuno, a hybrid focusing on the refrain and improvisation, became the foundation for much Afro-Caribbean piano. Basic patterns, often two-measure phrases with two downbeats and seven upbeats in two-three clave, are crucial. Pianists must maintain a strong, level presence, locking in with bass and percussion, with primary accents on beats 1 and 4+ of the two-side of clave.
Standard voicings and technique. For traditional styles, piano voicings typically involve the left hand playing a three-note triad, and the right hand doubling the bottom note an octave above. Developing right-hand independence through exercises alternating between the outer octave and inner third, played in quarter-notes, triplets, and eighth-notes, is essential for power and volume. Early Cuban piano often featured parallel hand movements.
Common harmonic progressions. Montuno sections usually feature simple, repetitive harmonic movements, unlike the verse. Key progressions include:
- I-IV-V-IV: Often played with root-position triads, or substituting the IV with a ii chord (e.g., C-F-G-F or C-Dm-G-Dm). Typically in two-three clave.
- I-V-V-I: Commonly uses a second inversion I chord moving to a root-position V, often incorporating the 6th degree as a passing tone (becoming the 9th of the V).
- II-V-I: Traditional voicing places the leading tone at the bottom, resolving to the 7th and 6th degrees of the tonic.
These progressions, especially the II-V, are found in both major and minor keys, with minor keys often featuring flatted 6ths and 9ths.
4. Expanding Montuno Expression: Harmonization, Contrary Motion, and Alterations
An interesting idea in montuno-playing has to do with playing the patterns in opposite directions of motion between the hands.
Harmonizing the montuno. Unlike the tres's guajeo, piano montunos can be enriched through harmonization, creating a fuller sound. The most common method involves simple thirds, which become tenths between the left hand and the lower voices of the right hand (which doubles its bottom note an octave above). This technique adds harmonic depth and texture to the repetitive montuno patterns.
Contrary motion. Playing patterns with hands moving in opposite directions (contrary motion) is another effective embellishment, especially when combined with harmonization. This creates a dynamic interplay between the hands, adding complexity and interest to the montuno. Even with neutral one-measure patterns, the underlying harmonic progression can still dictate the clave direction.
Altered chords and extensions. Modern montuno playing frequently incorporates altered chords and extended voicings, a direct result of jazz influence. Combinations of flatted and raised fifths and ninths are common. These alterations enrich the harmonic palette, moving beyond simple triads to create more intricate and contemporary sounds, even within traditional rhythmic frameworks.
5. The Salsa Era: New York's Sound and Evolving Rhythmic-Harmonic Approaches
The word "salsa" was a catchy description for a vibrant music which was reaching heights of extraordinary popularity, mostly through the efforts of a fledgling record company founded in 1964 by Johnny Pacheco: Fania Records.
Salsa's emergence. The term "Salsa," coined in the late 60s/early 70s, became a commercial label for Afro-Cuban-based music flourishing on the East Coast, particularly in New York and Puerto Rico. While some Cubans viewed it as a rebranding of the son, it evolved into a distinct genre, shaped by artists like the Fania All Stars, Willie Colón, and Eddie Palmieri. This era saw significant rhythmic and harmonic changes, even as core Cuban structures remained.
East Coast hybrids. The 1960s in New York witnessed a boom in charanga music and the pachanga style, popularized by Johnny Pacheco. Later, Latin Boogaloo (Latin Soul) emerged, blending Latin rhythms with R&B, attracting crossover audiences with English lyrics and blues modalities. The "New York Mozambique," a distinct interpretation of Cuba's mozambique rhythm, also gained popularity, showcasing the percussion section's evolving role.
Salsa Romántica. By the 1980s, Salsa faced competition from Dominican merengue, leading to the "Salsa Romántica" subgenre. This style adopted slower, more mechanical tempos and pop-influenced harmonic progressions, often featuring arpeggiated montunos and additional keyboards/synthesizers. While criticized for being "watered-down," it broadened Salsa's appeal to a younger, wider market, demonstrating the genre's adaptability and commercial evolution.
6. Cuban Innovation: Songo, Jazz, and the Exploration of Complex Meters
Compositor, bajista y director de orquesta, Formell fundó uno de los grupos de musica bailable cubana más importantes de la historia, Los Van Van, y es pionero de varios cambios estructurales tanto instrumentales dentro del formato de la charanga.
Post-revolutionary evolution. Despite political isolation, Cuban musicians continued to innovate, incorporating jazz, fusion, and rock elements into popular dance music. This led to distinct sounds, moving beyond catering solely to dancers. The "feeling" and "nueva trova" genres, influenced by American and British rock, brought social and political themes to folk traditions, modernizing instrumentation with electric guitars and keyboards.
Songo's revolution. Juan Formell and Los Van Van pioneered the songo in the 1970s, a new rhythmic style that fused modern rock influences with Cuban genres. Songo evolved into a series of developing patterns, redefining Cuban popular music. Pianist César "Pupi" Pedroso played a key role, incorporating pop-like riffs, repeated eighth-notes over syncopated bass, and adaptations of sacred batá drum rhythms, creating complex, syncopated one-measure arpeggiated patterns.
Cuban Jazz pioneers. Groups like Irakere, led by Chucho Valdés, blended ritual Afro-Cuban music with American Jazz and European classical forms, earning international acclaim and a Grammy. Pianists like Valdés and Emiliano Salvador explored harmonic complexity and rhythmic versatility, including odd meters (e.g., 5/4 and 7/8 montunos). This era showcased tremendous freedom, as Cuban Jazz artists were not constrained by the demands of a dancing public.
7. Beyond Cuba: Incorporating Merengue, Bomba, and Plena Styles
La música afrocaribeña podría compararse a un potaje; por más que se le añada, ¡mejor sabe!
Dominican Merengue. The merengue, originating in the Dominican Republic, evolved from the European contredanse, absorbing African and Creole elements. Simpler to dance than Cuban styles, it became a national symbol. The accordion set the standard for piano playing, characterized by rapid, virtuostic staccato figures. Merengue montunos (jaleos) often revolve around I-V-V-I or V-V-I-I progressions, typically in three-two clave, with the bass playing non-syncopated half-note patterns.
Merengue piano variations. Pianists can enhance merengue patterns with:
- Chromatic passing tones and arpeggios.
- Alternating bass patterns between half-notes and syncopated tumbao.
- Emphasizing eighth-note arpeggios, particularly in the V-V-I-I progression, with anticipation on the three-side of the clave.
- Syncopated patterns combining three-side emphasis with two-side arpeggiation.
Modern merengues also feature breakdown sections where piano and bass play unison or harmonized syncopated lines, contrasting the typical vamp.
Puerto Rican Bomba and Plena. Puerto Rico's rich musical history includes música jíbara (Spanish-derived folk) and African-influenced styles like bomba and plena. The plena, a working-class protest music, features panderetas and often I-V-V-I progressions. Bomba, an African-derived dance music, uses barrel drums and emphasizes the fourth beat of the measure, often avoiding beat 1 with an arpeggio. When arranged "in clave," these styles adopt Cuban phrasing characteristics, with anticipation on the three-side and downbeats on the two-side.
8. The 90s and Beyond: Advanced Harmony, Rhythmic Displacement, and Two-Keyboard Grooves
One of the newest developments in contemporary piano-playing in the Afro-Caribbean genre has been popularized by Cuban piano genius Gonzalo Rubalcaba.
Harmonic sophistication. The 1990s and beyond saw a general "sophistication" of Afro-Caribbean rhythmic styles, particularly in harmonic expansion. This includes:
- Altered chords: Frequent use of flatted and raised fifths and ninths in guaracha and other styles.
- Upper structures: Building simple triads on altered notes or extensions, often with contrary motion in the upper voice or harmonized passing tones.
- Quartal harmony: Employing open fourths (perfect and diminished) in Latin Jazz contexts, sometimes mimicking batá rhythms.
- Sus chords & polychords: Playing over suspended and polychords (e.g., C/D and Eb/F) requires a looser, comping approach, often using "So What" voicings in smooth, parallel motion.
Rhythmic exploration. Contemporary montuno playing, especially in Cuban dance music ("salsa cubana"), moves away from strictly repetitive patterns. Pianists often focus on one-measure patterns and constant arpeggiation, as exemplified by César "Pupi" Pedroso of Los Van Van. The increased syncopation of bass and percussion makes these patterns sound more complex.
Beat displacement and two-keyboard grooves. Gonzalo Rubalcaba popularized "beat displacement," creating rhythmic "contortionism" by shifting beats or adding notes to established patterns, giving the illusion of "twisted" time. This requires rhythmic security from the entire rhythm section. The 90s also saw the rise of two-keyboard grooves, pioneered by groups like NG La Banda and Los Van Van. The second keyboard adds orchestral colors, doubles horn/string lines, or plays tres-like phrases, creating intricate textures and modern sounds.
9. The Art of Montuno: Balance, Phrasing, and Percussive Intuition
The clave should never limit you as a player; it should inspire and motivate.
Balance and variation. The essence of playing solid montunos lies in balancing stability with variation. The goal is to make the playing interesting without distracting from the main musical component, such as the melody or vocals. This involves thinking in phrases, repeating ideas before introducing new variations, and ensuring these changes are subtle and tasteful. Avoid over-stuffing a single song with too many different ideas.
Percussive approach. The piano in Afro-Caribbean music is a highly percussive instrument. Pianists should approach it with a drummer's mindset, emphasizing accents and rhythmic drive. Taking a basic percussion class and practicing with claves or drums can significantly enhance a pianist's polyrhythmic sensibility and understanding of the music's fundamental rhythmic concepts.
Listening and practice. There is no substitute for listening to the masters who created and molded this music. Studying recordings of renowned pianists and other musicians mentioned throughout the book is crucial. Practicing with a rhythm section or a sequencer program helps develop a reliable sense of time and understand how patterns interlock. Ultimately, the music should be felt and enjoyed, allowing the body to move with the rhythm, even while seated.
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